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Vaccinations

Vaccinations

Active versus Passive Immunity

Active versus Passive Immunity

Immunity, along with the ability to limit pathogen growth to prevent significant body tissue damage, can be gained either by (1) actively developing an immune response within the individual after exposure to a pathogen or after getting vaccinated or (2) passively transferring immune components from an immune individual to one who is nonimmune. Both these forms of immunity can be found naturally and in medical practices.
Active Immunity
Active immunity refers to the resistance one develops...

Development of Immunocompetence

Development of Immunocompetence

The initiation of cell-mediated immunity can be observed as early as the third month of fetal growth, with active antibody-mediated immunity following approximately one month later.
The initial cells that migrate from the fetal thymus settle within the skin and epithelial tissues lining the mouth, digestive tract, and in females, the uterus and vagina. These cells, including skin-based dendritic cells, serve as antigen-presenting cells, playing a key role in T cell activation.
Subsequent T...

Immunodeficiency Diseases

Immunodeficiency Diseases

Immunodeficiency disorders are conditions in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. The immune system comprises a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from potentially harmful invaders. When this system is deficient or not functioning properly, it leaves the body susceptible to infections, diseases, or other complications.
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Drug Dosing: Infants and Children

Drug Dosing: Infants and Children

Pediatric patient dosages diverge from adults due to disparities in body surface area, total body water, and extracellular fluid per kilogram of body weight. The dosing regimen considers the variations in pharmacokinetics and pharmacology across distinct age groups, encompassing preterm newborns, infants, young children, older children, and adolescents. Calculation of pediatric patient doses is predicated on determining body surface area, which exhibits a superior correlation with the child's...

Pharmacokinetics in Pediatric Patients: Drug Excretion

Pharmacokinetics in Pediatric Patients: Drug Excretion

In pediatric medicine, understanding the renal function and drug elimination nuances is crucial for administering safe and effective treatments. Newborns, in particular, display markedly slower renal functions than adults, profoundly affecting how drugs are cleared from their bodies. This slower drug clearance requires clinicians to extend the dosing intervals for many medications to prevent drug accumulation and toxicity while ensuring therapeutic efficacy.One key area where these adjustments...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 12, 2026

Noninvasive Sampling of Mucosal Lining Fluid for the Quantification of In Vivo Upper Airway Immune-mediator Levels

Noninvasive Sampling of Mucosal Lining Fluid for the Quantification of In Vivo Upper Airway Immune-mediator Levels

Published on: August 7, 2017

Extraimmunization among US children.

S M Feikema¹, R M Klevens, M L Washington

¹Medical Management Department, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, GA, USA.

|March 14, 2000

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Extra immunizations, or vaccine doses beyond the recommended schedule, affect 21% of children and cost millions annually. Improving record-keeping can help reduce unnecessary vaccine doses.

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Detection of Polyfunctional T Cells in Children Vaccinated with Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine via the Flow Cytometry Technique

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Last Updated: May 12, 2026

Noninvasive Sampling of Mucosal Lining Fluid for the Quantification of In Vivo Upper Airway Immune-mediator Levels

Noninvasive Sampling of Mucosal Lining Fluid for the Quantification of In Vivo Upper Airway Immune-mediator Levels

Published on: August 7, 2017

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

Opsono-Adherence Assay to Evaluate Functional Antibodies in Vaccine Development Against Bacillus anthracis and Other Encapsulated Pathogens

Published on: May 19, 2020

Detection of Polyfunctional T Cells in Children Vaccinated with Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine via the Flow Cytometry Technique

Detection of Polyfunctional T Cells in Children Vaccinated with Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine via the Flow Cytometry Technique

Published on: September 23, 2022

Area of Science:

Pediatric Health
Public Health Policy
Immunization Practices

Background:

Extraimmunization, defined as vaccine doses exceeding the recommended schedule, is not well understood.
The public health implications of extraimmunization require further investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantify the prevalence and financial cost of extraimmunization in children.
To identify factors associated with receiving extra immunizations.

Main Methods:

Analysis of the 1997 United States National Immunization Survey data.
Inclusion of 32,742 children aged 19-35 months, with vaccination histories from healthcare providers for 22,806.
Weighted estimates to represent the national population.

Main Results:

Poliovirus vaccination had the highest extraimmunization rate (14.1%).
Overall, 21% of children received at least one extra vaccine dose, compared to 31% receiving fewer than recommended.
Having multiple immunization providers significantly increased the likelihood of extraimmunization (OR 2.8).
Annual costs for extraimmunization were estimated at $26.5 million.

Conclusions:

Extraimmunization represents a significant financial burden.
Strategies to reduce extraimmunization should not compromise efforts against underimmunization.
Enhanced immunization record-keeping and data sharing are crucial for minimizing unnecessary vaccine doses.