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The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

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To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and continuing across the periods of the periodic table, we add one proton at a time to the nucleus and one electron to the proper subshell until we have described the electron configurations of all the elements. This procedure is called the aufbau principle, from the German word aufbau (“to build up”). Each added electron occupies the subshell of...

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Formal Charges

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Updated: Jul 14, 2026

Liquid-cell Transmission Electron Microscopy for Tracking Self-assembly of Nanoparticles

Liquid-cell Transmission Electron Microscopy for Tracking Self-assembly of Nanoparticles

Published on: October 16, 2017

Spontaneous ordering of oxide nanostructures

Aggarwal¹, Monga, Perusse

¹Department of Materials and Nuclear Engineering, Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Flat Panel Display Division, Motorola Inc., 7700 South River Parkway, Tempe, AZ 85284, USA.

Science (New York, N.Y.)

|March 24, 2000

Summary

Uniform arrays of palladium oxide "tips" spontaneously form on thin palladium films during oxidation. Film thickness and processing conditions influence tip size and density, suggesting potential for field emission applications.

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High Resolution Physical Characterization of Single Metallic Nanoparticles

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Simultaneous Multi-surface Anodizations and Stair-like Reverse Biases Detachment of Anodic Aluminum Oxides in Sulfuric and Oxalic Acid Electrolyte

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High Resolution Physical Characterization of Single Metallic Nanoparticles

High Resolution Physical Characterization of Single Metallic Nanoparticles

Published on: June 28, 2019

Area of Science:

Materials Science
Surface Science
Nanotechnology

Background:

Palladium (Pd) thin films are crucial in various electronic and catalytic applications.
Controlling nanostructure formation on thin films is essential for advanced material properties.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the spontaneous formation of nanostructures during palladium thin film oxidation.
To understand the relationship between film properties, processing conditions, and nanostructure morphology.
To explore the potential applications of these nanostructures.

Main Methods:

Oxidation of palladium thin films with varying thicknesses (40-200 nm).
Characterization of the resulting nanostructures (tips/hillocks).
Analysis of the influence of film thickness, granularity, annealing, and oxidation conditions.
Measurement of photoelectron emission properties.

Main Results:

Uniform arrays of conical palladium oxide tips formed spontaneously.
Tip height increased from 0.5 to 1.2 µm with increasing film thickness.
Tip density decreased from 55 x 10^6 to 12 x 10^6 cm^-2 as thickness increased.
Broader height distribution observed with thicker films.

Conclusions:

Palladium film thickness and oxidation conditions dictate the formation and morphology of oxide tips.
The observed tips exhibit enhanced photoelectron emission.
These palladium oxide tips show promise for field emission device applications.