[Respiratory behavior]

The notion of respiratory behaviour is grounded, among other approaches, on studies of neuronal mechanisms of voluntary breathing, clinical data, conditioning experiments and respiratory sensations. The interactions between cortical centres of voluntary breathing and respiratory neurones in the brain stem are poorly understood: voluntary control operates through the direct action of corticomotor centres on respiratory motoneurones; however these cortical structures may directly act on bulbopontine centres, and therefore indirectly on respiratory motoneurones. Recordings in animals of brain stem neuronal activity, brain imaging in humans, and transcortical stimulation of the diaphragm in humans and in animal models support either one or the other hypothesis. The mutual independence of the automatic and the voluntary controls of breathing appears in patients with impaired bulbopontine automatism and operational voluntary control (Central Congenital Hypoventilation Syndrome), and in patients with the reverse impairment (locked-in syndrome). Finally, recent studies in humans and animals show that classical conditioning affects respiratory control and sensations.