Fluctuation theorems for entropy production in open systems

Salt particles that have dissolved in water never spontaneously come back together in solution to reform solid particles. Moreover, a gas that has expanded in a vacuum remains dispersed and never spontaneously reassembles. The unidirectional nature of these phenomena is the result of a thermodynamic state function called entropy (S). Entropy is the measure of the extent to which the energy is dispersed throughout a system, or in other words, it is proportional to the degree of disorder of a...

In the quest to identify a property that may reliably predict the spontaneity of a process, a promising candidate has been identified: entropy. Scientists refer to the measure of randomness or disorder within a system as entropy. High entropy means high disorder and low energy. To better understand entropy, think of a student’s bedroom. If no energy or work were put into it, the room would quickly become messy. It would exist in a very disordered state, one of high entropy. Energy must be put...

The first law of thermodynamics is quantitatively formulated via an equation relating the internal energy of a system, the heat exchanged by it, and the work done on it. A quantitative formulation of the second law of thermodynamics leads to defining a state function, the entropy.
When an ideal gas expands isothermally, the disorder in the gas increases. From the molecular perspective, the gas molecules have more volume to move around in.
Consider an infinitesimal step in the expansion, which...

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated quantitatively using the concept of entropy. Entropy is the measure of disorder of the system.
The relation  between entropy and disorder can be illustrated with the example of the phase change of ice to water. In ice, the molecules are located at specific sites giving a solid state, whereas, in a liquid form, these molecules are much freer to move. The molecular arrangement has therefore become more randomized. Although the change in average...

Consider an isolated system in which a hot object is placed in contact with a cold one. This is an irreversible process that eventually leads both objects to reach the same equilibrium temperature. It is crucial to note that the constituents of any substance exhibit increased disorder at higher temperatures. As a cold substance absorbs heat, its constituents become more disordered. The energy transfer from a hotter object to a cooler one increases the system's disorder or randomness. This...

Consider an arbitrary process that moves between two specific states (A and B) in a cyclic manner. This process is reversible and broken down into smaller parts that each follow a Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle has two isothermal (constant temperature) processes. During these processes, the ratio of the amount of heat transferred to their respective temperature remains constant. The other two processes in the Carnot cycle are also reversible but adiabatic, which means they occur without any heat...