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Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

The response to stress—be it physical or psychological, acute or chronic—involves activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is part of the neuroendocrine system because it involves both neuronal and hormonal communication. Its function is to regulate homeostatic systems—metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune—providing the necessary means to respond to a stressor.

Stress

Stress

When a force is applied on a body, it undergoes deformation. In order to restore the body to its original shape and/or size, an opposite or restoring force is generated within the body. This restoring force is equal to the magnitude of the applied force, but acts in the opposite direction. The amount of this restoring force developed per unit area of the body is called stress. Stress is a tensor quantity and has the SI unit pascal. Stress can be separated into four broad categories depending...

Components of Stress

Components of Stress

Stress analysis under multiple loading conditions is intricate, necessitating a comprehensive grasp of normal and shearing stresses. Consider a small cube at point O, subjected to stress on all six faces, visible or not. Normal stress components σx, σy, σz act perpendicularly to the x, y, and z axes. Shearing stress components τxy and τxz are exerted on faces perpendicular to these axes.
Interestingly, the hidden cube faces also experience these stresses, equal and opposite to those on the...

General State of Stress

General State of Stress

The general state of stress within a material can be accurately depicted using a stress tensor. This tensor encapsulates the internal forces distributed within a material subjected to external forces or deformations.
Specifically, consider a tetrahedral element where one face, labeled XYZ, is perpendicular to the line OA, and the remaining faces align with the coordinate axes with point O as the origin. At any point, such as point O, the stress tensor can be used to determine the stress...

Psychological Responses to Stress

Psychological Responses to Stress

Psychological responses to stress encompass the various cognitive and emotional reactions individuals experience when faced with challenging or threatening situations, such as a job loss. Prolonged exposure to stressors can disturb emotional balance, increasing negative emotions (e.g., anxiety and sadness) and diminishing positive emotions (e.g., joy and satisfaction). These persistent emotional shifts are associated with an increased risk of both physical illness and mental health issues, such...

Physiological Foundation of Stress

Physiological Foundation of Stress

Stress triggers a coordinated physiological response involving the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This dual activation ensures that the body is prepared for both immediate and prolonged stress management. The process begins with the perception of a stressor. This initial phase activates the SNS, leading to the rapid release of adrenaline (epinephrine) from the adrenal glands.
Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System
Adrenaline triggers the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 12, 2026

A Mouse Model of Subchronic and Mild Social Defeat Stress for Understanding Stress-induced Behavioral and Physiological Deficits

A Mouse Model of Subchronic and Mild Social Defeat Stress for Understanding Stress-induced Behavioral and Physiological Deficits

Published on: November 24, 2015

Mental stress induces transient endothelial dysfunction in humans.

L Ghiadoni¹, A E Donald, M Cropley

¹Vascular Physiology Unit, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Trust, London WC1 3JH, UK.

|November 15, 2000

Summary

Mental stress temporarily impairs endothelial function in healthy individuals, potentially linking stress to atherosclerosis. This effect, measured by flow-mediated dilation, resolves within four hours.

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Area of Science:

Cardiovascular Physiology
Stress Physiology
Endothelial Function

Background:

Mental stress is associated with cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality.
Endothelial damage is a proposed mechanism linking stress to atherosclerosis progression.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the impact of acute mental stress on endothelial function in healthy and diabetic men.
To assess if mental stress affects endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation.

Main Methods:

Assessed brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (endothelium-dependent) and glyceryl trinitrate response (endothelium-independent) using ultrasound.
Measured responses before and after a standardized mental stress test in healthy and diabetic men.
Repeated measurements in healthy men without mental stress to control for circadian effects.

Main Results:

Healthy men showed significantly reduced flow-mediated dilation 30 and 90 minutes after mental stress, returning to baseline after 4 hours.
Mental stress did not alter the response to glyceryl trinitrate in healthy men.
Diabetic men had lower baseline flow-mediated dilation and showed no significant changes after mental stress.

Conclusions:

Brief mental stress induces transient endothelial dysfunction in healthy individuals.
This transient dysfunction may be a mechanistic link between mental stress and the development of atherosclerosis.
Diabetic individuals did not exhibit stress-induced endothelial changes, possibly due to already impaired function.