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Related Concept Videos

Oxidation Numbers03:14

Oxidation Numbers

In redox reactions, the transfer of electrons occurs between reacting species. Electron transfer is described by a hypothetical number called the oxidation number (or oxidation state). It represents the effective charge of an atom or element, which is assigned using a set of rules.
Alkali Metals03:06

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the alkali metals are unusually low for metals and decrease going down the group, while the density increases going down the group with the exception of potassium (Table 1).
Table 1: Properties of the alkali metals
Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Osmium Tetraoxide02:44

Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Osmium Tetraoxide

Alkenes are converted to 1,2-diols or glycols through a process called dihydroxylation. It involves the addition of two hydroxyl groups across the double bond with two different stereochemical approaches, namely anti and syn. Dihydroxylation using osmium tetroxide progresses with syn stereochemistry.
Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Potassium Permanganate02:21

Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Potassium Permanganate

Alkenes can be dihydroxylated using potassium permanganate. The method encompasses the reaction of an alkene with a cold, dilute solution of potassium permanganate under basic conditions to form a cis-diol along with a brown precipitate of manganese dioxide.
Oxidation of Alkenes: Anti Dihydroxylation with Peroxy Acids02:04

Oxidation of Alkenes: Anti Dihydroxylation with Peroxy Acids

Diols are compounds with two hydroxyl groups. In addition to syn dihydroxylation, diols can also be synthesized through the process of anti dihydroxylation. The process involves treating an alkene with a peroxycarboxylic acid to form an epoxide. Epoxides are highly strained three-membered rings with oxygen and two carbons occupying the corners of an equilateral triangle. This step is followed by ring-opening of the epoxide in the presence of an aqueous acid to give a trans diol.
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes: Ozonolysis01:46

Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes: Ozonolysis

In ozonolysis, ozone is used to cleave a carbon–carbon double bond to form aldehydes and ketones, or carboxylic acids, depending on the work-up.
Ozone is a symmetrical bent molecule stabilized by a resonance structure.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 29, 2026

Production of Synthetic Nuclear Melt Glass
04:36

Production of Synthetic Nuclear Melt Glass

Published on: January 4, 2016

Materials science. The hardest known oxide.

L S Dubrovinsky1, N A Dubrovinskaia, V Swamy

  • 1Institute of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, S-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden. leonid.dubrovinsky@geo.uu.se

Nature
|April 5, 2001
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers discovered a new titanium dioxide (TiO2) polymorph with a cotunnite structure. This ultra-hard oxide, synthesized under extreme conditions, is the hardest known oxide material.

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Last Updated: Jun 29, 2026

Production of Synthetic Nuclear Melt Glass
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Published on: January 4, 2016

Bulk and Thin Film Synthesis of Compositionally Variant Entropy-stabilized Oxides
09:41

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Published on: May 29, 2018

Determining the Mechanical Strength of Ultra-Fine-Grained Metals
05:04

Determining the Mechanical Strength of Ultra-Fine-Grained Metals

Published on: November 22, 2021

Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Mineral Physics
  • Solid State Chemistry

Background:

  • The search for superhard materials continues, with oxides often exhibiting lower hardness compared to non-oxides like diamond.
  • Previous research has explored various titanium dioxide (TiO2) polymorphs, but none have approached the hardness of established superhard materials.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To synthesize and characterize a novel, ultra-hard polymorph of titanium dioxide (TiO2).
  • To investigate the structural and mechanical properties of this new titanium oxide phase under high pressure and temperature.

Main Methods:

  • High-pressure synthesis experiments utilizing multi-anvil or diamond anvil cells.
  • In-situ characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) to determine crystal structure.
  • Computational modeling to predict and confirm material properties.

Main Results:

  • Discovery of a new cotunnite-structured titanium oxide (TiO2) polymorph.
  • Synthesis achieved at pressures exceeding 60 gigapascals (GPa) and temperatures above 1,000 Kelvin (K).
  • The new phase exhibits exceptional hardness and low compressibility, classifying it as the hardest known oxide.

Conclusions:

  • The identified cotunnite-structured titanium oxide represents a significant advancement in the field of superhard materials.
  • This discovery pushes the boundaries of known oxide hardness, offering potential for new technological applications.
  • Further research into the synthesis and properties of high-pressure titanium oxide polymorphs is warranted.