Further distinctions between coping and defense mechanisms?

In the current literature there is a great confusion between coping and defense mechanisms. As Cramer (1998) points out, a distinction between them is both possible and worthwhile in that they possess different cognitive features. Cramer proposes two basic criteria: the conscious/unconscious and the intentional/unintentional nature of the processes. We focus on a further criterion, the manipulation versus revision of one's mental attitudes, which so far has been neglected in the relevant literature. We suggest that responses to adversity implying manipulation are typical of defense mechanisms, while those implying the revision of one's mental attitudes characterize coping strategies. Finally, we address emotion-focused coping as the area where coping and defense meet, and we suggest that responses displaying defensive features should be excluded from the category of coping in accordance with the distinctions identified.