Biology of echinostomes except Echinostoma

This review examines the significant literature on the biology of echinostomes, except Echinostoma, for the following species rich genera: Echinoparyphium, Echinochasmus, Himasthla, and Hypoderaeum. Coverage of these genera includes descriptive studies, life cycle studies, experimental and manipulative studies, and biochemical and molecular studies. Coverage of other echinostome genera, i.e., Petasiger, Euparyphium, Stephanoprora, Isthmiophora, Acanthoparyphium, and Patagifer was mainly concerned with descriptive and life cycle studies. Some groups that are considered echinostome-like were covered because species in these genera have medical, economic, or biological significance (particularly Parorchis, Philophthalmus, and Ribeiroia). A dominant theme of the review is the availability of key species of echinostomes for use in biological research; coverage also includes methods for obtaining and maintaining these organisms in the laboratory. Some species with significant medical, veterinary, and biological importance that have been covered extensively include the Echinoparyphium recurvatum species complex, Echinochasmus liliputanus, Himasthla quissetensis, Himasthla rhigadana, and Hypoderaeum conoideum.