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Related Concept Videos

Assembly of Complex Microtubule Structures01:32

Assembly of Complex Microtubule Structures

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Complex microtubule structures are present in resting cells and in dividing cells. In resting cells, they are responsible for maintaining the cellular architecture, tracks for intracellular transport, positioning of organelles, assembly of cilia and flagella. They mediate the bipolar spindle assembly for chromosomal segregation and positioning of the cell division plate in dividing cells. The formation of microtubule complex structures depends on the cell type, cell stage, and cell function.
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Spindle Assembly02:50

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Spindle assembly occurs through three, often coexisting, pathways – the centrosome-mediated pathway, the chromatin-mediated pathway, and the microtubule-mediated pathway – collectively contributing to form a robust spindle apparatus.
In most cells, centrosomes are the primary microtubule nucleation centers. In the centrosome-mediated pathway, the G2-prophase transition triggers centrosome maturation and increased microtubule nucleation. Progressive nucleation results in a...
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Most animal cells comprise a pair of centrioles together called a centrosome. The cell duplicates its centrosome and contains two centrosomes side-by-side, which begin to move apart during the prophase. As the centrosomes migrate to two different sides of the cell, microtubules start extending from each centrosome toward the other end. The mitotic spindle is composed of the centrosomes and their emerging microtubules.
Near the end of the prophase, also called late prophase or...
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Microtubule Formation01:23

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Microtubules are dynamic structures that undergo continuous assembly and disassembly. They originate from specialized multi-protein complexes known as microtubule organizing centers or MTOCs. Within the MTOC, the point of origin of the microtubule is known as the minus end, while the end radiating outward is the plus end. Microtubules serve two primary functions — the organization of spindle complexes to separate sister chromatids during mitotic or meiotic cell division and the formation...
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Microtubules are thick hollow cylindrical proteins that help form the cytoskeleton. Microtubules have varied roles in the cell. These filaments help form cellular appendages like cilia and flagella, which are responsible for locomotion. The cilia arise from basal bodies, separated from the main body by a membrane-like structure forming the transition zone. This zone is the gate for the entry of lipids and proteins, creating a unique composition of lipids and proteins in the ciliary membrane and...
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Eukaryotic cells have different motor proteins for transporting various cargo within the cell. These motor proteins differ based on the filament they associate with, the direction they move within the cell, and the type of cargo they transport. Motor proteins that associate with microtubules are known as microtubule-associated motor proteins. There are two families of microtubule-associated motor proteins —Kinesins and Dyneins. Both these proteins assist in the transport of cellular...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 17, 2026

Assembly of Complex Microtubule Structures
01:32

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The Earth's mantle.

G R Helffrich1, B J Wood

  • 1Earth and Planetary Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-Ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan. george@geology.bristol.ac.uk

Nature
|August 3, 2001
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Seismic and geochemical data suggest whole-mantle convection, challenging the layered mantle model. Subducted crustal material explains observed mantle heterogeneities, indicating deep material circulation.

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Last Updated: Jan 17, 2026

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Area of Science:

  • Geophysics
  • Geochemistry
  • Mineral Physics

Background:

  • Seismic observations reveal distinct velocity structures in Earth's mantle at 410 km, 660 km, and 2,700 km.
  • The D" layer at 2,700 km likely represents chemical and thermal changes, while shallower discontinuities suggest mineral phase transformations.
  • Subducted material appears to penetrate the deep mantle, implying whole-mantle convection, yet geochemical data often suggest a layered mantle.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To reconcile seismological and geochemical evidence regarding mantle convection.
  • To investigate the role of subducted crustal material in deep mantle structure.
  • To determine if whole-mantle convection is consistent with all available geophysical and geochemical data.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of seismological images, including tomographic data and discontinuity displacements.
  • Examination of geochemical analyses of basaltic mantle melt products.
  • Integration of heat-flow data with seismological and geochemical findings.

Main Results:

  • Seismological data indicate subducted material penetrates the deep mantle, supporting whole-mantle convection.
  • Geochemical data have been interpreted to suggest a layered mantle system.
  • The study demonstrates consistency between geochemical, seismological, and heat-flow data under a whole-mantle convection model.

Conclusions:

  • Whole-mantle convection is supported by integrated geophysical and geochemical data.
  • Observed mantle heterogeneities are attributed to recycled oceanic and continental crust.
  • Recycled crustal material constitutes approximately 16% (oceanic) and 0.3% (continental) of the mantle volume.