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Updated: Jul 22, 2026

Invasion of Human Cells by a Bacterial Pathogen
07:15

Invasion of Human Cells by a Bacterial Pathogen

Published on: March 21, 2011

Mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus induced apoptosis of human endothelial cells

M Esen1, B Schreiner, V Jendrossek

  • 1Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Gmelinstrasse 5, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.

Apoptosis : an International Journal on Programmed Cell Death
|October 12, 2001
PubMed

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Apoptosis is a combination of two Greek words, 'apo' and 'ptosis,' meaning separation and falling off, respectively. Hippocrates used this word to describe gangrene, which was caused due to bandaging of fractured bones. Apoptosis was distinguished from necrosis in 1970 when John Kerr reported observations of morphological changes occurring during apoptosis. During one experiment, he observed that the disruption of blood supply to the liver tissue resulted in a size reduction of the tissue.
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Caspases

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The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

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The Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathway

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Phagocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

Cells undergoing apoptosis form apoptotic bodies that must be removed immediately to prevent inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and necrosis. Phagocytosis is carried out by professional phagocytes such as macrophages or  immature dendritic cells. Non-professional phagocytes such as  epithelial cells and fibroblasts also take part in this process; however, they are not as effective as professional phagocytes. 
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Cells respond to damage and stress through highly coordinated processes that decide whether they survive or undergo controlled self-destruction. Two major pathways involved in this regulation are apoptosis, a type of programmed cell death, and autophagy, a survival mechanism that helps cells adapt to adverse conditions.ApoptosisApoptosis removes aged or injured cells to maintain tissue balance. During this process, the cell shrinks, chromatin condenses and fragments, and membrane-bound...