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The Calvin Cycle

OverviewOxygenic photosynthesis plays a central role in the global carbon and oxygen cycles. The carbohydrates produced support nearly all food webs, while the oxygen by‑product enables aerobic life.Light‑dependent and light‑independent reactionsPhotosynthesis occurs in two main stages, each in a different part of the chloroplast: light‑dependent reactions and light‑independent reactions, also called the Calvin‑Benson cycle or simply the Calvin cycle.Light‑dependent reactions take place in the...
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Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
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The universe is composed of matter in different forms, and all forms of matter contain energy.  The different forms of energy on Earth originate from the Sun—the ultimate energy source. For instance, plants capture light energy from the Sun, and through the process of photosynthesis, convert it into chemical energy. This stored energy from plants can be harnessed in many ways. For example, eating plant products as food provides energy for our body to function, and burning wood or coal...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 18, 2026

Quantitative Real-Time PCR using the Thermo Scientific Solaris qPCR Assay
09:21

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Published on: June 17, 2010

Beryllium-10 from the Sun.

K Nishiizumi1, M W Caffee

  • 1Space Sciences Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-7450, USA. kuni@ssl.berkeley.edu

Science (New York, N.Y.)
|October 13, 2001
PubMed
Summary

Excess Beryllium-10 (10Be) was found on lunar soil 78481, originating from the Sun. This solar wind-deposited 10Be was detected on the mineral grain surfaces using a sequential leaching technique.

Area of Science:

  • Cosmochemistry
  • Nuclear Astrophysics
  • Lunar Science

Background:

  • Beryllium-10 (10Be) is a cosmogenic isotope produced by cosmic ray interactions in extraterrestrial materials.
  • Understanding the origin and distribution of 10Be on the Moon provides insights into solar activity and space weathering processes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the presence and origin of excess Beryllium-10 (10Be) in lunar surface soil 78481.
  • To quantify the contribution of solar wind implantation to the lunar 10Be inventory.

Main Methods:

  • Sequential leaching technique applied to lunar soil sample 78481.
  • Measurement of Beryllium-10 (10Be) concentrations in leached fractions.
  • Calculation of 10Be implantation rates based on surficial deposition.

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Main Results:

  • Excess 10Be, beyond in situ production, was identified in lunar soil 78481.
  • This excess 10Be constitutes 0.7-1.1% of the total 10Be inventory and is located in the uppermost layers (<1 micrometer) of mineral grains.
  • A solar implantation rate of (2.9 +/- 1.2) x 10(-6) atoms per square centimeter per second was determined for the lunar surface.

Conclusions:

  • The excess 10Be on the lunar surface is primarily attributed to implantation from the solar wind.
  • The Sun's atmosphere is the most probable source of this excess 10Be, transported to the Moon via solar wind.
  • This finding highlights the significant role of solar activity in lunar surface composition and evolution.