Variations in demographic behaviour by levels of living in Pakistan

This paper utilizes data from the Population, Labour Force, and Migration Survey of 1979 which collected information from about 10,000 households in Pakistan. Poverty was directly related to household size and also to the average number of children under 15, which meant higher dependency ratios for the poor. Poorer ever-married women had higher fertility rates than richer women. However, the association between fertility and levels of living was not monotonically inverse. Schooling rates of 5-9 year olds varied positively with levels of living and, conversely, labor force participation rates for boys aged 10-14 were generally higher in the poorer deciles. The value of children and their utility varies across the deciles. Data from Pakistan show only broad negative associations between infant mortality and standard of living. It could be argued that relatively higher mortality is experienced by those at lower standards of living, which leads at 1st to diminished household size, but eventually to higher fertility and larger household size. Out-migration, particularly to the Middle East, seems to have occurred in reasonably well-off households, or at least has not affected the poorest strata of society. Remittances have further enhanced the standard of living of out-migrants' households. The fertility of migrant households may also be lower than that of nonmigrants and may explain smaller household size. However, internal migration to urban areas tends to increased size as rural migrants live jointly in households away from their families.