The history of cold hardiness research in terrestrial arthropods

R.A.F. Reaumur in 1736 was the first entomologist to observe that some insects can tolerate freezing, while others cannot. The first reviews on insect cold hardiness were published by P. Bachmetjew who also discovered supercooling in insects. Authors like W. Robinson realised that piercing the cuticle changed the supercooling capacity and N.M. Payne pointed out that there are great seasonal variations in insect cold hardiness. In the early literature, references were frequently made to plant cold hardiness, in which theories on tolerance to freezing were more elaborated. A modern approach to the studies of insect cold hardiness was initiated by R.W. Salt. The number of reports increased enormously in the 1960's and 1970's. During the last 20 to 30 years new insight has appeared from studies on ice nucleators, antifreeze proteins, ice-nucleating bacteria, desiccation and biochemistry of cryoprotectants.