History of the microscope and development of microsurgery: a revolution for reproductive tract surgery

In the mid-1970s urologists in the field of paediatric and andrologic surgery felt that operating loupes did not provide sufficient magnification for their surgical work. Thus, urology finally introduced the operating microscope in the operating room, which was rather late in comparison to other surgical disciplines. Almost three decades later we can hardly imagine performing a vasovasostomy, a testicular autotransplantation or a penile reconstruction without the use of this sophisticated instrument. The following article from the history of medicine reveals the main steps in the technical development of the microscope, from early magnifying tools to the pioneering inventions of Carl Zeiss (1816-1888) and his successful company in Jena, Germany in the 19th century. Finally, the clinical application of microsurgery in the 20th century is described, focusing on reconstruction of the reproductive tract in andrology and gynaecology.