Related Experiment Video
Updated: Sep 28, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
Published on: August 13, 2019
Effects of hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular responses in postmenopausal women with and without type 2
Paul Manwaring1, Stephen Phoon, Terence Diamond
1Department of Clinical Pharmacology, St. George Hospital, University of New South Wales, Gray Street, NSW 2217, Kogarah, Australia.
Objective:
To determine whether blood pressure (BP) responses to pressor stimuli during hormone replacement therapy are reduced by oral conjugated equine estrogens 0.625 mg/day (ERT) and ERT in combination with 5 mg/day continuous medroxyprogesterone (HRT) in women with and without type 2 diabetes.
Methods:
Twenty type 2 diabetic and 20 non-diabetic women completed a three period, randomised, double bind crossover studying the effects of 1 month of therapy of ERT, HRT and placebo on BP responses to mental arithmetic and isometric stress and to intravenous infusions of noradrenaline and angiotensin II.
Results:
Significant differences were found between the effects of ERT, HRT and placebo therapy on BP responses to mental arithmetic in the women with type 2 diabetes apparently due to a smaller response during ERT therapy. BP responses to mental arithmetic were not affected in non-diabetic women. BP responses to isometric exercise and to intravenous infusions of noradrenaline and angiotensin II were similar in the type 2 diabetic and non-diabetic women and were not affected by ERT or HRT therapy. Plasma renin activity differed significantly between ERT, HRT and placebo therapies in type 2 diabetic women, apparently because of lower levels during ERT and HRT therapy.
Conclusions:
ERT and HRT may produce beneficial effects on BP responses to psychological stress and on plasma renin activity in women with type 2 diabetes. BP responses to isometric exercise and to intravenous infusions of noradrenaline and angiotensin II are not altered by ERT or HRT in type 2 diabetic or non-diabetic women.
Related Concept Videos
Diabetes Mellitus: Type 2 and Gestational
Type II Diabetes II: Pathophysiology
Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
Diabetes: Management and Pharmacotherapy
Insulin remains the cornerstone of treatment for most patients with type 1 and many...
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Starch accounts for approximately 60% of the carbohydrates consumed by humans. Since amylase enzymes cannot function in the stomach's acidic environment, starch can only be digested in the mouth and small intestine. Simple sugars are found naturally in milk and fruits in the...
Type II Diabetes I: Introduction