Computer-assisted endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting: the penn state experience

The introduction and widespread acceptance of minimally invasive techniques have revolutionized surgical practice in many disciplines over the last two decades. Endoscopic operations have been shown to reduce patient morbidity and provide a more rapid return to work. Until recently, endoscopic approaches have had little impact on the field of cardiac surgery. Endoscopically-sutured coronary anastomoses have not been possible with conventional endoscopic instruments, due in part to their length and imprecision.