Related Experiment Video
Updated: Aug 7, 2026

Using the Threat Probability Task to Assess Anxiety and Fear During Uncertain and Certain Threat
Published on: September 12, 2014
Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: a national field experiment
Jennifer S Lerner1, Roxana M Gonzalez, Deborah A Small
1Department of Social and Decision Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. jlerner@andrew.cmu.edu
Abstract:
The aftermath of September 11th highlights the need to understand how emotion affects citizens' responses to risk. It also provides an opportunity to test current theories of such effects. On the basis of appraisal-tendency theory, we predicted opposite effects for anger and fear on risk judgments and policy preferences. In a nationally representative sample of Americans (N = 973, ages 13-88) fear increased risk estimates and plans for precautionary measures; anger did the opposite. These patterns emerged with both experimentally induced emotions and naturally occurring ones. Males had less pessimistic risk estimates than did females, emotion differences explaining 60 to 80% of the gender difference. Emotions also predicted diverging public policy preferences. Discussion focuses on theoretical, methodological, and policy implications.
Related Concept Videos
Surveys
Factors Affecting Perception
An illustrative example of a perceptual set is the scenario where an airline pilot told...
Preparedness and Phobias
Cognitive Theories: Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Physiological Arousal and Cognitive Labeling
According to this theory, when an individual experiences physiological...
Facial Feedback Hypothesis

