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Related Concept Videos

X-ray Crystallography02:18

X-ray Crystallography

The size of the unit cell and the arrangement of atoms in a crystal may be determined from measurements of the diffraction of X-rays by the crystal, termed X-ray crystallography.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the change in the direction of travel experienced by an electromagnetic wave when it encounters a physical barrier whose dimensions are comparable to those of the wavelength of the light. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths about as long as the distance between neighboring...
X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples01:10

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples

X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are  scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The  X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal crystal...
Scanning Electron Microscopy01:07

Scanning Electron Microscopy

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the surface features of a sample by using an electron beam that scans the sample surface in a two-dimensional manner. Typically, areas between ~1 centimeter to 5 micrometers in width can be imaged. SEM can be used to image bacteria, viruses, tissues as well as larger samples like insects. Conventional SEM gives a magnification ranging from 20X to 30,000X and spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nanometers.
Fundamental Principles
Accelerated...
X-ray Imaging01:24

X-ray Imaging

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible "ray" would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an "X-ray" image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists worldwide quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-ray was widely...
Atomic Spectroscopy: Absorption, Emission, and Fluorescence01:23

Atomic Spectroscopy: Absorption, Emission, and Fluorescence

Atomic spectroscopy is a vital tool in elemental analysis, both qualitatively and quantitatively. It can be broadly divided into optical spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and X-ray spectroscopy methods. The optical spectroscopic methods are atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), atomic emission spectroscopy (AES), and atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS). The first step in all three methods is atomization, where the solid, liquid, or solution-phase samples are converted into gas-phase atoms and...
Determination of Crystal Structures01:29

Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

Small and Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering Studies of Biological Macromolecules in Solution
12:53

Small and Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering Studies of Biological Macromolecules in Solution

Published on: January 8, 2013

X-ray fluorescence analysis in biology.

T HALL

    Science (New York, N.Y.)
    |August 18, 1961
    PubMed
    Summary

    Understanding minor element biological roles is limited by current instruments. X-ray fluorescence analysis, though not the most sensitive, is a valuable tool for clinical and research applications.

    Area of Science:

    • Biochemistry
    • Analytical Chemistry
    • Medical Diagnostics

    Background:

    • The biological significance of "minor" elements is crucial but poorly understood.
    • Current analytical instrument sensitivity limits comprehensive study of these elements.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To highlight the utility of X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) for studying minor elements.
    • To advocate for wider adoption of XRF in relevant research and clinical settings.

    Main Methods:

    • X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) is presented as a key instrumental technique.
    • Discussion of XRF's applicability in specific clinical and research contexts.

    Main Results:

    • XRF is not the most sensitive method for minor element assay.
    Keywords:
    CHEMISTRY, ANALYTICALFLUORESCENCE

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    Last Updated: Jun 26, 2026

    Small and Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering Studies of Biological Macromolecules in Solution
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    Small and Wide Angle X-Ray Scattering Studies of Biological Macromolecules in Solution

    Published on: January 8, 2013

    Synchrotron X-ray Microdiffraction and Fluorescence Imaging of Mineral and Rock Samples
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    Synchrotron X-ray Microdiffraction and Fluorescence Imaging of Mineral and Rock Samples

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  • XRF is identified as the preferred instrumental technique for select clinical studies and research problems.

    • Conclusions:

    • Despite sensitivity limitations, XRF is a valuable tool for minor element analysis.
    • Increased awareness and adoption of XRF will expand its use in biological and clinical research.