Avian host range of Chlamydophila spp. based on isolation, antigen detection and serology

Published reports and our own diagnostic data on the avian host range of avian Chlamydophila spp. are presented in an attempt to provide evidence for the large number of bird species that have been naturally infected with chlamydia. The term 'chlamydia-positive' is based on either isolation of the organism and antigen detection or on serological detection of circulating antibodies. The list of chlamydia-positive birds contains the six major domestic species (chicken, turkey, Pekin duck, Muscovy duck, goose, and pigeon), the three minor domestic species (Japanese quail, bobwhite quail, and peafowl) and a total of 460 free-living or pet bird species in 30 orders. The order Psittaciformes contains by far the most (153 of 342; 45%) chlamydia-positive bird species. More than 20% of all species per order are positive for chlamydia in the orders Lariformes (gulls, 26 of 92 species; 28%), Alciformes (alks, six of 23 species; 26%), Sphenisciformes (penguins, four of 16 species; 25%), and Anseriformes (ducks and geese, 33 of 157 species; 21%). Only 5% of all bird species (14 of 259 species) in the order Phasianiformes (gallinaceus birds) are chlamydia-positive. The different percentages of chlamydia-positive bird species reflect: (i) a high rate of investigations (e.g. of domestic birds) compared with infrequent testing (e.g. of Charadriiformes or Cuculiformes), (ii) frequent zoonotic implications (e.g. psittacine and columbiform birds), and (iii) an assumed high susceptibility to infection and subsequent seroconversion (e.g. waterfowl).