Cardiovascular responses to external counterpulsation: a computer simulation

A mathematical model of the human cardiovascular system is presented which includes a simulation of cardiac assistance by external counterpulsation. The model was established to study the effects of external counterpulsation on cardiovascular haemodynamics. The closed simulation includes both the left and the right heart and the pulmonary circulation. The model is able to provide data for the behaviour of the system under varying modes of assistance. Our results suggest that control of external counterpulsation is more difficult than control of the intra-aortic balloon pump and requires regulation of a larger number of variables. The results also suggest that a tradeoff exists between improved oxygen delivery to the heart and reduction in the oxygen consumption of the myocardium, an observation similar to that reported for the intra-aortic balloon pump.