Evolution of mitochondrial gene content: gene loss and transfer to the nucleus

Mitochondrial gene content is highly variable across extant eukaryotes. The number of mitochondrial protein genes varies from 3 to 67, while tRNA gene content varies from 0 to 27. Moreover, these numbers exclude the many diverse lineages of non-respiring eukaryotes that lack a mitochondrial genome yet still contain a mitochondrion, albeit one often highly derived in ultrastructure and metabolic function, such as the hydrogenosome. Diversity in tRNA gene content primarily reflects differential usage of imported tRNAs of nuclear origin. In the case of protein genes, most of this diversity reflects differential degrees of functional gene transfer to the nucleus, with more minor contributions resulting from gene loss from the cell as a consequence of either substitution via a functional nuclear homolog or the cell's dispensation of the function of the gene product. The tempo and pattern of mitochondrial gene loss is highly episodic, both across the broad sweep of eukaryotes and within such well-studied groups as angiosperms. All animals, some plants, and certain other groups of eukaryotes are mired in profound stases in mitochondrial gene content, whereas other lineages have experienced relatively frequent gene loss. Loss and transfer to the nucleus of ribosomal protein and succinate dehydrogenase genes has been especially frequent, sporadic, and episodic during angiosperm evolution. Potential mechanisms for activation of transferred genes have been inferred, and intermediate stages in the process have been identified by comparative studies. Several hypotheses have been proposed for why mitochondrial genes are transferred to the nucleus, why mitochondria retain genomes, and why functional gene transfer is almost exclusively unidirectional.