Human nonverbal counting estimated by response production and verbal report

In three experiments, people were shown sequential displays and were prevented from verbal counting by being required to perform other cognitive tasks. In Experiment 1, the subjects were shown three target (target = 8, 16, or 32) sequences of colored geometric shapes. On occasional question trials, the subjects were asked to estimate the target number after the final item in the sequence. On other test trials, items continued to appear beyond the target, and the subjects estimated the target manually by tapping a space bar. In Experiments 2 and 3, a matching-to-sample procedure required the subjects to estimate the same sequence of items (target = 8, 11, 14, 17, or 20) both verbally and manually. The results indicated that (1) manual and verbal estimates closely approximated target size in Experiments 1 and 2, (2) coefficients of variation were constant across target size, and (3) correlations between manual and verbal estimates were positive in Experiments 2 and 3. Requiring the subjects to perform a counting task during presentation of items led to underestimation of number in Experiment 3.