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Related Concept Videos

Ion Channels01:19

Ion Channels

The movement of ions like sodium, potassium, and calcium into and out of the cell is essential to maintain the electrochemical gradient in living cells. The ion channels—a class of membrane transport proteins—help maintain this ionic gradient for the smooth functioning of physiological activities such as maintaining cell size and volume, conducting nerve impulses, and gas and nutrient exchange.
Ion channels are specialized integral membrane proteins on the plasma membrane that allow specific...
Voltage-gated Ion Channels01:26

Voltage-gated Ion Channels

Voltage-gated ion channels are transmembrane proteins that open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential. They are present on the membranes of all electrically excitable cells such as neurons, heart, and muscle cells.
Generally, all voltage-gated ion channels have a 'voltage-sensing domain' that spans the lipid bilayer. The charged residues in the sensor move in response to the membrane potential changes that open the channel allowing ions movement. There are several types of...
Generation of Action Potential in Skeletal Muscles01:24

Generation of Action Potential in Skeletal Muscles

Every cell in the body maintains a membrane potential due to an uneven distribution of positive and negative charges across its plasma membrane. The membrane potential is measured in millivolts and quantifies the difference in charge across the membrane.
Like neurons, muscle cells are also regarded as excitable due to their capacity to change in response to stimuli, primarily due to voltage-gated ion channels embedded in their plasma membranes, which get activated by alterations in the cell's...
Electrochemical Gradient and Channel Proteins: An Overview01:21

Electrochemical Gradient and Channel Proteins: An Overview

An electrochemical gradient is a fundamental concept in biology and chemistry. It regulates the movement of ions across cell membranes. This movement is influenced by two factors:
The electrical gradient: The electrical gradient across cell membranes refers to the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell.  This difference drives the movement of ions towards or away from the cells. For instance, if the inside of the cell is more negatively charged relative to the...
Graded Potential01:19

Graded Potential

Graded potentials are localized fluctuations in the cell membrane's electrical charge, commonly found in the dendrites of neurons. The magnitude of these potential changes depends on the strength of the initiating stimulus. In a membrane at its resting potential, a graded potential signifies a voltage shift either above -70 mV or below -70 mV.
Graded potentials fall into two categories: depolarizing and hyperpolarizing. Depolarizing graded potentials typically occur when sodium (Na+) or calcium...
Voltage-gated Ion Channels01:26

Voltage-gated Ion Channels

Voltage-gated ion channels are transmembrane proteins that open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential. They are present on the membranes of all electrically excitable cells such as neurons, heart, and muscle cells.
Generally, all voltage-gated ion channels have a 'voltage-sensing domain' that spans the lipid bilayer. The charged residues in the sensor move in response to the membrane potential changes that open the channel allowing ions movement. There are several types of...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises
16:16

Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises

Published on: January 19, 2011

Selective form of an excitable membrane plasticity.

L E Tsitolovsky, N V Babkina

    Brain Research
    |November 6, 1992
    PubMed
    Summary

    Snails learn to protect themselves by altering how their command neurons respond to touch. Learning increases neuron sensitivity to protective cues while decreasing sensitivity to distracting ones.

    Area of Science:

    • Neuroscience
    • Behavioral Biology
    • Animal Cognition

    Background:

    • Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process observed across species.
    • Defensive reflexes are crucial for survival, involving specific neural pathways.
    • Understanding neural plasticity in invertebrates provides insights into basic learning mechanisms.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate changes in command neuron electrogenesis during classical conditioning of a defensive reflex in snails.
    • To determine how learning affects neural responses to conditioned and differentiating stimuli.
    • To elucidate the neural basis of adaptive behavioral changes in response to environmental cues.

    Main Methods:

    • Classical conditioning paradigm using tactile stimuli in snails.

    More Related Videos

    Recapitulation of an Ion Channel IV Curve Using Frequency Components
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    Recapitulation of an Ion Channel IV Curve Using Frequency Components

    Published on: February 9, 2011

    Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins
    08:39

    Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

    Published on: May 22, 2017

    Related Experiment Videos

    Last Updated: Jul 11, 2026

    Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises
    16:16

    Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises

    Published on: January 19, 2011

    Recapitulation of an Ion Channel IV Curve Using Frequency Components
    10:14

    Recapitulation of an Ion Channel IV Curve Using Frequency Components

    Published on: February 9, 2011

    Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins
    08:39

    Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

    Published on: May 22, 2017

  • Electrophysiological recordings of command neuron activity.
  • Analysis of neuronal excitability changes during reflex elaboration, extinction, and restoration.

    • Main Results:

    • Command neurons showed increased excitability to the conditioned stimulus after learning.
    • Command neurons exhibited decreased excitability to the differentiating stimulus.
    • These changes in electrogenesis correlated with the learned defensive response.

    Conclusions:

    • Learning modifies the excitability of command neurons involved in defensive behaviors.
    • Neural plasticity in command neurons underlies the adaptive modification of defensive reflexes.
    • This study highlights the role of specific neural circuits in associative learning and behavioral adaptation.