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Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Osmium Tetraoxide02:44

Oxidation of Alkenes: Syn Dihydroxylation with Osmium Tetraoxide

Alkenes are converted to 1,2-diols or glycols through a process called dihydroxylation. It involves the addition of two hydroxyl groups across the double bond with two different stereochemical approaches, namely anti and syn. Dihydroxylation using osmium tetroxide progresses with syn stereochemistry.
Oxidation of Alkenes: Anti Dihydroxylation with Peroxy Acids02:04

Oxidation of Alkenes: Anti Dihydroxylation with Peroxy Acids

Diols are compounds with two hydroxyl groups. In addition to syn dihydroxylation, diols can also be synthesized through the process of anti dihydroxylation. The process involves treating an alkene with a peroxycarboxylic acid to form an epoxide. Epoxides are highly strained three-membered rings with oxygen and two carbons occupying the corners of an equilateral triangle. This step is followed by ring-opening of the epoxide in the presence of an aqueous acid to give a trans diol.
Aldol Condensation with β-Diesters: Knoevenagel Condensation01:27

Aldol Condensation with β-Diesters: Knoevenagel Condensation

The Knoevenagel condensation is an aldol-type reaction involving the condensation of aldehydes or ketones with active methylene compounds such as β-diesters to produce substituted olefins.
Alkylation of β-Ketoester Enolates: Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis01:07

Alkylation of β-Ketoester Enolates: Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis

Acetoacetic ester synthesis is a method to obtain ketones from alkyl halides and β-keto esters. The reaction occurs in the presence of an alkoxide base that abstracts the acidic proton of the β-keto esters. The step results in an enolate ion which is doubly stabilized. The enolate then reacts with an alkyl halide via the SN2 process to produce an alkylated ester intermediate with a new C–C bond. The hydrolysis of the intermediate, followed by acidification, results in an alkylated β-keto acid.
Alkylation of β-Diester Enolates: Malonic Ester Synthesis01:14

Alkylation of β-Diester Enolates: Malonic Ester Synthesis

Malonic ester synthesis is a method to obtain α substituted carboxylic acids from ꞵ-diesters such as diethyl malonate and alkyl halides.
Production of Organic Acids01:25

Production of Organic Acids

Lactic acid, an important organic acid extensively applied in food, pharmaceutical, and biodegradable polymer industries, is primarily produced via microbial fermentation. This method is favored over chemical synthesis due to its environmental sustainability and capacity for enantiomerically pure product formation. Among various microbial processes, the fermentation of starch-based substrates stands out due to the abundance and renewability of raw materials like corn and potatoes.Hydrolysis of...