Related Experiment Video
Updated: Aug 14, 2026

The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress
Published on: July 4, 2013
Exposure to "low-level" aggression in school: associations with aggressive behavior, future expectations, and
Paul Boxer1, Laura Edwards-Leeper, Sara E Goldstein
1Research Center for Group Dynamics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48106, USA. boxerp@umich.edu
Abstract:
Examined associations with witnessing and being victimized by "low-level" aggressive acts (e.g., pushing, gossip) and three indicators of psychosocial functioning in a sample of 771 elementary school students from one urban and one suburban school district. Results indicated that exposure to low-level aggression appears to relate to psychosocial functioning in ways similar to more severe forms of aggression. Students who were exposed to higher levels of both witnessing and victimization by low-level aggression reported the highest levels of engagement in aggression, the lowest levels of positive expectations for the future, and the lowest levels of perceived safety. Findings are discussed in the context of research on exposure to aggression in general, with suggestions offered for future studies. Implications of the findings for school-based intervention programs are raised.
Related Concept Videos
Aggression
Bullying
Secondary Motives: Affiliation Motivation and Aggression Motivation
Conduct Disorder
Causes of Social Behavior III: Biological and Environmental Influences
Social Foundations of Self II: The Generalized Other

