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Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

The response to stress—be it physical or psychological, acute or chronic—involves activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis is part of the neuroendocrine system because it involves both neuronal and hormonal communication. Its function is to regulate homeostatic systems—metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune—providing the necessary means to respond to a stressor.

The Pituitary Gland

The Pituitary Gland

The pituitary is a small endocrine organ in the sphenoid bone under the hypothalamus. Primarily, the pituitary in adults has two distinct anatomical and functional regions— the anterior and posterior lobes. During human fetal development, a third pituitary gland region called the pars intermedia atrophies and disappears. However, some of its cells migrate and exist adjacent to the anterior pituitary in adults.

Hormones of the Pituitary Gland

Hormones of the Pituitary Gland

The small, pea-sized pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is crucial in regulating various bodily functions, from growth to reproduction. The gland is divided into the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The secretory cell clusters in the pars distalis of the anterior pituitary lobe are controlled by hypothalamic regulators and synthesize six primary hormones.
The most abundantly secreted hormone from the anterior lobe is the growth hormone, which controls overall growth by...

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Hormones, the biochemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, are pivotal in regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Each hormone's balance is crucial; imbalances can lead to significant physiological disruptions. Major hormones include oxytocin, cortisol, epinephrine, estrogen, testosterone, thyroxine, growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon.
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

Cushing Syndrome I: Introduction

Cushing Syndrome I: Introduction

Cushing syndrome refers to the collection of clinical manifestations that arise when tissues are exposed to excessive amounts of cortisol or cortisol-like medications over an extended period. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, regulates metabolism, immune responses, and the body’s adaptation to stress. When its concentration remains chronically elevated, these physiological pathways become dysregulated, resulting in the characteristic features of the syndrome.Exogenous...

Cushing Syndrome II: Pathophysiology

Cushing Syndrome II: Pathophysiology

Cortisol production is normally governed by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which maintains hormonal balance through tightly regulated feedback mechanisms. Disruption of this regulatory system is central to the development of Cushing syndrome, whether the excess cortisol originates from external medications or internal pathology. Persistent cortisol elevation alters metabolism, immune function, and endocrine signaling, producing the characteristic clinical features of the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 29, 2026

Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

Published on: December 18, 2010

[Pituitary tumors].

Takakazu Kawamata¹, Tomokatsu Hori

¹Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Institute, Tokyo Women's Medical University.

Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine

|May 20, 2004

Summary

Pituitary adenomas are common benign brain tumors. This study explores ectopic pituitary tumors, their causes, and advanced surgical treatments like endonasal transsphenoidal surgery.

Area of Science:

Neurosurgery
Endocrinology
Pathology

Background:

Pituitary adenomas are the most common benign intracranial neoplasms.
Radiological advancements lead to incidental diagnosis of pituitary tumors.
Ectopic pituitary tumors can occur in unusual locations such as the sphenoid sinus or nasal cavity.

Purpose of the Study:

To describe ectopic pituitary tumors.
To review current knowledge on the etiology and pathology of pituitary tumors.
To highlight advancements in endonasal transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary tumor treatment.

Main Methods:

Literature review on ectopic pituitary tumors.
Discussion of proposed origins of ectopic pituitary tumors.
Overview of endonasal transsphenoidal surgical techniques.

More Related Videos

Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

Published on: January 17, 2018

Development of Organoids from Mouse Pituitary as In Vitro Model to Explore Pituitary Stem Cell Biology

Development of Organoids from Mouse Pituitary as In Vitro Model to Explore Pituitary Stem Cell Biology

Published on: February 25, 2022

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Last Updated: Jun 29, 2026

Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

Induction of Experimental Autoimmune Hypophysitis in SJL Mice

Published on: December 18, 2010

Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas

Published on: January 17, 2018

Development of Organoids from Mouse Pituitary as In Vitro Model to Explore Pituitary Stem Cell Biology

Development of Organoids from Mouse Pituitary as In Vitro Model to Explore Pituitary Stem Cell Biology

Published on: February 25, 2022

Main Results:

Ectopic pituitary tumors originate from migrated pituitary cells or remnants of the craniopharyngeal canal.
Common locations for ectopic pituitary tumors include the sphenoid sinus, suprasellar region, clivus, and nasal cavity.
Endonasal transsphenoidal surgery offers an advanced approach for treating pituitary tumors.

Conclusions:

Understanding the origins of ectopic pituitary tumors is crucial for diagnosis and management.
Recent advancements in endonasal transsphenoidal surgery improve treatment outcomes for pituitary tumors.
Continued research into pituitary tumor pathology and surgical techniques is essential.