Extra-nuclear effects on growth and development in the sand cricket Gryllus firmus

Although largely ignored until recently, parental effects on the phenotypes of their offspring are both ubiquitous in nature and of a potentially great importance to evolution. Our study examines the presence of extra-nuclear (maternal and paternal) effects in growth traits, development time and adult size in the sand cricket Gryllus firmus using a diallel cross of inbred lines. Sex linkage was shown to be nonsignificant for development time but the other traits could not be tested. We assume that they are nonsignificant but use the term 'reciprocal' effects to include this effect. We show that reciprocal effects are present in the growth traits and development time, where they account for 10-30% of the phenotypic variance. They are not present in adult size as indexed by head width. We demonstrate that reciprocal effects are due, at least in part, to maternal effects by an analysis of the positive correlation between egg size, a maternal trait, and the growth traits. The growth rate traits show no significant decline with age either with respect to extra-nuclear contributions to variance or difference between phenotypic means of reciprocal pairs. This study demonstrates that extra-nuclear effects are important contributors to the phenotypic variation in life history traits of G. firmus.