Treatment for end-stage renal disease: an organogenesis/tissue engineering odyssey

The means by which kidney function can be replaced in humans with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) include dialytic therapies and renal allotransplantation. Dialysis, is lifesaving, but often poorly tolerated. Transplantation of human kidneys is limited by the availability of donor organs. During the past decades, several different approaches have been applied towards new means to replace renal function through organogenesis and tissue engineering. These include: (1) incorporation of new nephrons into the kidney; (2) growing new kidneys in situ; (3) use of stem cells; (4) generation of histocompatible tissues using nuclear transplantation; and (5) bioengineering of an artificial kidney. The development of these approaches has depended upon understanding and integrating discoveries made in a diversity of scientific disciplines. The means by which such integration has driven advances in the treatment of ESRD provides a generic roadmap for the successful application of organogenesis and tissue engineering to organ replacement therapy.