Undermedication for pain: an ethical model

Ethical decision making for, and with, clients experiencing pain and needing narcotic analgesia is especially problematic as evidenced by research findings. This article demonstrates the application of Greipp's model to ethical decision making for clients experiencing pain. Particular attention within this model is given to learned potential inhibitors of the nurse as they influence the outcome (decision). The application of this model to decision making and pain management will generate further scientific inquiry by identifying the areas of breakdown in ethical decision making for and by clients experiencing pain so that remediation strategies may be planned.