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Related Concept Videos

Synaptic Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.

The Synapse

The Synapse

Neurons communicate with one another by passing on their electrical signals to other neurons. A synapse is the location where two neurons meet to exchange signals. At the synapse, the neuron that sends the signal is called the presynaptic cell, while the neuron that receives the message is called the postsynaptic cell. Note that most neurons can be both presynaptic and postsynaptic, as they both transmit and receive information.

Synaptic Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.
Most synapses are chemical, meaning an electrical impulse or action potential spurs the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. The neuron sending the signal is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the signal is the postsynaptic neuron.
The presynaptic neuron fires an action potential that...

Amplifying Signals via Second Messengers

Amplifying Signals via Second Messengers

Many receptor binding ligands are hydrophilic; they do not cross the cell membrane but bind to cell-surface receptors. Thus, their message must be relayed by second messengers present in the cell cytoplasm. There are several second messenger pathways, each with its own way of relaying information. For example, the G protein-coupled receptors can activate both phosphoinositol and cyclic AMP (cAMP) second messenger pathways. The phosphoinositol pathway is active when the receptor induces...

Amplifying Signals via Enzymatic Cascade

Amplifying Signals via Enzymatic Cascade

When a ligand binds to a cell-surface receptor, the receptor's intracellular domain changes shape, which may either activate its enzyme function or allow its binding to other molecules. The initial signal is amplified by most signal transduction pathways. This means that a single ligand molecule can activate multiple molecules of a downstream target. Proteins that relay a signal are most commonly phosphorylated at one or more sites, activating or inactivating the protein. Kinases catalyze the...

Signal Transduction: Overview

Signal Transduction: Overview

Cells respond to many types of information, often through receptor proteins positioned on the membrane. They respond to chemical signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules, initiating a series of molecular reactions to produce an appropriate response. This is called signal transduction. Cells also coordinate different responses elicited by the same signaling molecule via mediators, allowing molecular cross-talk.
Typically, signal transduction involves three...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 11, 2026

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Published on: September 17, 2011

Signal transduction at a protein synapse.

Alasdair C Steven¹

¹Laboratory of Structural Biology, NIAMS, Building 50, Room 1517, 50 South Drive MSC 8025, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.

|August 19, 2004

Summary

Bacteriophage T4 tail contraction during host cell entry involves massive structural changes. This process relies on rigid-body movements of protein subunits, similar to interlocking gears.

Area of Science:

Structural biology
Molecular mechanisms
Biophysics

Background:

Bacteriophage T4 tail contraction is essential for host cell penetration.
Understanding the molecular machinery driving this conformational change is crucial.

Discussion:

Cryo-electron microscopy reveals structural differences between initial and final states of T4 tail contraction.
The mechanism involves coordinated, rigid-body movements of protein subunits.

Key Insights:

The conformational free energy powers the massive structural transformation.
The process resembles the coordinated action of gears in a mechanical lock.

Outlook:

Further research can elucidate the precise dynamics of subunit interactions.

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Mimicking the Function of Signaling Proteins: Toward Artificial Signal Transduction Therapy

Mimicking the Function of Signaling Proteins: Toward Artificial Signal Transduction Therapy

Published on: September 29, 2016

DetectSyn: A Rapid, Unbiased Fluorescent Method to Detect Changes in Synapse Density

DetectSyn: A Rapid, Unbiased Fluorescent Method to Detect Changes in Synapse Density

Published on: July 22, 2022

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 11, 2026

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Published on: September 17, 2011

Mimicking the Function of Signaling Proteins: Toward Artificial Signal Transduction Therapy

Mimicking the Function of Signaling Proteins: Toward Artificial Signal Transduction Therapy

Published on: September 29, 2016

DetectSyn: A Rapid, Unbiased Fluorescent Method to Detect Changes in Synapse Density

DetectSyn: A Rapid, Unbiased Fluorescent Method to Detect Changes in Synapse Density

Published on: July 22, 2022

This study provides a mechanical model for viral DNA injection.