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The Citric Acid Cycle

The Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, consists of several energy-generating reactions that yield one ATP molecule, three NADH molecules, one FADH2 molecule, and two CO2 molecules.

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration wherein molecules derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are oxidized into carbon dioxide and energy. This process is also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle as the first product of the cycle, citric acid, contains three carboxyl groups in its structure. Alternatively, this cycle is also referred to as the Krebs cycle, in honor of its discoverer Sir Hans Krebs.
The citric...

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Lipids also are sources of energy that power cellular processes. Like carbohydrates, lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but these atoms are arranged differently. Most lipids are nonpolar and hydrophobic. Major types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
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Amines to Amides: Acylation of Amines

Various carboxylic acid derivatives (such as acid chlorides, esters, and anhydrides) can be used for the acylation of amines to yield amides. The reaction requires two equivalents of amines. The first amine molecule functions as a nucleophile and attacks the carbonyl carbon to produce a tetrahedral intermediate. This is followed by the loss of the leaving group and restoration of the C=O bond.
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The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The citric acid cycle is termed an amphibolic pathway as it operates both anabolically and catabolically. The cyclic reactions balance the flux of the substrates to provide an optimal concentration of NADH and ATP to the cell.
Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle
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Phase II Reactions: Acetylation Reactions

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Acetylation, a phase II biotransformation reaction, introduces an acetyl group to drugs or their metabolites. Acetyltransferase enzymes facilitate this reaction, which resembles α-amino acid conjugation due to the addition of a functional group to the drug molecule.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 29, 2026

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

A Facile Protocol to Generate Site-Specifically Acetylated Proteins in Escherichia Coli

Published on: December 9, 2017

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (AMP forming).

V J Starai¹, J C Escalante-Semerena

¹Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 264 Enzyme Institute, 1710 University Avenue, 53726-4087, Madison, Wisconsin 53726-4087, USA.

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences : CMLS

|August 19, 2004

Summary

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (Acs) activates acetate to acetyl-CoA, a key metabolite for cell processes. Its expression and activity are tightly regulated by complex systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

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Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Molecular Biology
Cell Metabolism

Background:

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (AMP forming; Acs) is a crucial enzyme in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellular metabolism.
Acs catalyzes the activation of acetate to acetyl-coenzyme A (Ac-CoA), a vital two-carbon metabolite for anabolic and energy generation pathways.

Purpose of the Study:

To summarize recent advancements in understanding the regulation and structure-function relationship of Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (Acs).
To highlight the intricate regulatory mechanisms controlling Acs gene expression and post-translational modifications.

Main Methods:

Review of recent literature on Acs regulation and structural studies.
Analysis of complex regulatory systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including gene expression control and post-translational acetylation/deacetylation.
Examination of recent structural data revealing Acs conformational changes during catalysis.

Main Results:

Acs synthesis and activity are meticulously monitored by cells through complex regulatory systems.
Gene expression is controlled by carbon flux, with a secondary layer of regulation via NAD+/sirtuin-dependent protein acetylation/deacetylation.
Recent structural studies provide insights into the dynamic conformational changes of Acs during its catalytic cycle.

Conclusions:

The regulation of Acs is a sophisticated process essential for metabolic integration within the cell.
Future research on Acs regulation and structure-function will deepen our understanding of cellular metabolism and molecular machinery.