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Topoisomerases are enzymes that relax overwound DNA molecules during various cell processes, including DNA replication and transcription. These enzymes regulate positive and negative DNA supercoiling without changing the nucleotide sequence. DNA overwinding in a clockwise direction results in positively supercoiled DNA, whereas underwinding in a counterclockwise direction produces negatively supercoiled DNA.
Types and Mechanism of action
Topoisomerases are divided into two main types.  Type I...

During mitosis, chromosome movements occur through the interplay of multiple piconewton level forces. In prometaphase, these forces help in chromosome assembly or congression at the equatorial plane, eventually leading to their alignment at the metaphase plate. The forces acting on the chromosomes are space and time-dependent; therefore, they vary with the position of the chromosomes as the cell progresses through mitosis. 
Microtubules and motor proteins exert two types of forces on...

During mitosis, chromosome movements occur through the interplay of multiple piconewton level forces. In prometaphase, these forces help in chromosome assembly or congression at the equatorial plane, eventually leading to their alignment at the metaphase plate. The forces acting on the chromosomes are space and time-dependent; therefore, they vary with the position of the chromosomes as the cell progresses through mitosis. 
Microtubules and motor proteins exert two types of forces on...

The double-stranded structure of DNA has two major advantages. First, it serves as a safe repository of genetic information where one strand serves as the back-up in case the other strand is damaged. Second, the double-helical structure can be wrapped around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, which can then be tightly wound to form chromosomes. This way, DNA chains up to 2 inches long can be contained within microscopic structures in a cell. A double-stranded break not only damages...

The double-stranded structure of DNA has two major advantages. First, it serves as a safe repository of genetic information where one strand serves as the back-up in case the other strand is damaged. Second, the double-helical structure can be wrapped around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, which can then be tightly wound to form chromosomes. This way, DNA chains up to 2 inches long can be contained within microscopic structures in a cell. A double-stranded break not only damages...

The basic reaction of homologous recombination (HR) involves two chromatids that contain DNA sequences sharing a significant stretch of identity. One of these sequences uses a strand from another as a template to synthesize DNA in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The final product is a novel amalgamation of the two substrates. To ensure an accurate recombination of sequences, HR is restricted to the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. At these stages, the DNA has been replicated already and the...