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Updated: Aug 15, 2026

Three and Four-Dimensional Visualization and Analysis Approaches to Study Vertebrate Axial Elongation and Segmentation
Published on: February 28, 2021
Segmentation defects of the human axial skeleton without dysostoses or skeletal dysplasias
Alan William Bates1, Krsty Nale
1Department of Histopathology, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom. alan.bates@royalfree.nhs.uk
Abstract:
The incidence and associations of axial segmentation defects were examined in a series of perinatal autopsies. Variations in vertebral morphology (whether changes in overall numbers or homeotic transformations from one morphological type to another) and of number of well-formed ribs were common, and both were associated with extraskeletal malformations. Rudimentary cervical ribs were present in almost half of all cases and were not specifically associated with extraskeletal abnormalities. Radiographs of all fetuses and infants at autopsy are recommended as they may uncover axial skeletal abnormalities.
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