Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Translation

Translation

Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of Life

Transfer RNA Synthesis

Transfer RNA Synthesis

One of the unique features of tRNA is the presence of modified bases. In some tRNAs, modified bases account for nearly 20% of the total bases in the molecule. Altogether, these unusual bases protect the tRNA from enzymatic degradation by RNases.
Each of these chemical modifications is carried by a specific enzyme, post-transcription. All of these enzymes have unique base and site-specificity. Methylation, the most common chemical modification, is carried by at least nine different enzymes, with...

tRNA Activation

tRNA Activation

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are present in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Though eukaryotes have 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to couple to 20 amino acids, many bacteria do not have genes for all of these aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Despite this, they still use all 20 amino acids to synthesize their proteins. For instance, some bacteria do not have the gene encoding the enzyme that couples glutamine with its partner tRNA. In these organisms, one enzyme adds glutamic acid to all of the...

Termination of Translation

Termination of Translation

The large ribosomal subunit has several important structures essential to translation. These include the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) - which is the site where the peptide bond is formed - and a large, internal, water-filled tube through which the nascent polypeptide moves. This latter structure is called the Peptide Exit Tunnel, and it begins at the PTC and spans the body of the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain is synthesized, it passes through...

Transfer RNA Synthesis

Transfer RNA Synthesis

One of the unique features of tRNA is the presence of modified bases. In some tRNAs, modified bases account for nearly 20% of the total bases in the molecule. Altogether, these unusual bases protect the tRNA from enzymatic degradation by RNases.
Each of these chemical modifications is carried by a specific enzyme, post-transcription. All of these enzymes have unique base and site-specificity. Methylation, the most common chemical modification, is carried by at least nine different enzymes, with...

tRNA Activation

tRNA Activation

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are present in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Though eukaryotes have 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to couple to 20 amino acids, many bacteria do not have genes for all of these aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Despite this, they still use all 20 amino acids to synthesize their proteins. For instance, some bacteria do not have the gene encoding the enzyme that couples glutamine with its partner tRNA. In these organisms, one enzyme adds glutamic acid to all of the...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Dynamic Interfacial Design in Adaptive Hybrid Materials Enables Reversible and Tunable Mechano-Optic Smart Responses.

ACS nano·2026

Same author

Theoretically Unveiling the Factors That Control Activated Ion Mobility in Lithium-Based Polymerized Ionic Liquids and Glasses.

ACS central science·2026

Same author

Connecting multiway enhancer-promoter interactions to changes in gene expression in cancer.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2026

Same author

Green-Synthesized rGO-CeO<sub>2</sub> Nanocomposites for Enhanced Visible-Light Photodegradation of Eosin Y.

Chemistry, an Asian journal·2026

Same author

Revealing the bond exchange and network rearrangement mechanism in vitrimers.

Science advances·2026

Same author

Efficient Li<sup>+</sup> Transport through a Single-Ion-Conducting Protective Layer for Stable Lithium-Metal Batteries.

ACS applied materials & interfaces·2026

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Isolation of Translating Ribosomes Containing Peptidyl-tRNAs for Functional and Structural Analyses

Isolation of Translating Ribosomes Containing Peptidyl-tRNAs for Functional and Structural Analyses

Published on: February 26, 2011

Dynamic transition in tRNA is solvent induced.

Gokhan Caliskan¹, Robert M Briber, D Thirumalai

¹Department of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218-2685, USA.

Journal of the American Chemical Society

|January 5, 2006

Summary

Hydrated transfer RNA (tRNA) and lysozyme exhibit similar dynamic transitions, suggesting solvent induction. Methyl groups appear less critical for this transition in macromolecules.

More Related Videos

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

Published on: December 29, 2021

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

Published on: February 12, 2022

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Isolation of Translating Ribosomes Containing Peptidyl-tRNAs for Functional and Structural Analyses

Isolation of Translating Ribosomes Containing Peptidyl-tRNAs for Functional and Structural Analyses

Published on: February 26, 2011

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

Published on: December 29, 2021

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

Published on: February 12, 2022

Area of Science:

Biophysics
Structural Biology
Biochemistry

Background:

Proteins and RNA possess distinct architectures and backbone structures.
Biological macromolecules undergo dynamic transitions influenced by their environment.
Understanding these transitions is key to comprehending molecular function.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the dynamics of transfer RNA (tRNA) using neutron scattering spectroscopy.
To compare the dynamic behavior of tRNA with that of proteins, such as lysozyme.
To explore the role of solvent and methyl groups in macromolecular dynamics.

Main Methods:

Neutron scattering spectroscopy was employed to study tRNA dynamics.
Hydrated tRNA and hydrated lysozyme were analyzed under similar conditions.
Comparative analysis of dynamic transition temperatures was performed.

Main Results:

Hydrated tRNA undergoes a dynamic transition at the same temperature as hydrated lysozyme.
This similarity supports a solvent-induced mechanism for the dynamic transition.
tRNA, lacking significant methyl groups, shows that they are not the primary drivers of this transition.

Conclusions:

The dynamic transition in biological macromolecules like tRNA and proteins is primarily solvent-induced.
Methyl groups are likely not the main contributors to the general dynamic transition.
Methyl groups may, however, account for observed differences in low-temperature dynamics between tRNA and lysozyme.