Neurological complications of HIV infection and AIDS: current and future perspectives

Cryptococcal meningitis is a life-threatening opportunistic infection predominantly associated with HIV/AIDS, accounting for over 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. However, it also affects individuals with other forms of immunosuppression, including those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, organ transplant recipients, patients with innate immunodeficiencies, and individuals with hematological disorders. The infection is caused mainly by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii,...

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by direct viral invasion or immune-mediated mechanisms triggered by infections or tumors. Both processes lead to neuronal injury, disrupted neurotransmission, and diverse neurological symptoms, often with overlapping clinical and pathological features.Autoimmune EncephalitisIn autoimmune encephalitis, antibodies target neuronal antigens on cell surfaces, synapses, or within neurons. A key example is anti-NMDAR encephalitis, which can...

Retroviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that undergoes a special form of replication. Once the retrovirus has entered the host cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes double-stranded DNA from the retroviral RNA genome. This DNA copy of the genome is then integrated into the host’s genome inside the nucleus via an enzyme called integrase. Consequently, the retroviral genome is transcribed into RNA whenever the host’s genome is transcribed, allowing the retrovirus to...

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma, most often due to infections or autoimmune processes. It presents with neuropsychiatric features such as fever, altered mental status, behavioral changes, cognitive dysfunction, seizures, focal deficits, and sometimes autonomic instability. In some cases, the meninges are also involved, resulting in meningoencephalitis.Infectious CausesInfectious encephalitis is most commonly viral but can also result from bacterial, fungal, or parasitic...

Spinal cord injury progresses through two interconnected phases: primary injury and secondary injury.Primary InjuryPrimary injury happens at the moment of trauma and involves immediate mechanical damage to the spinal cord.Compression happens when broken vertebrae, herniated discs, or accumulating blood (such as a hematoma) press directly against the spinal cord, distorting its normal shape and function. In cases of contusion, the cord is bruised by a blunt force (like penetrating injuries or...

DefinitionDiabetic neuropathy is nerve damage caused by long-standing diabetes mellitus. It results directly from prolonged high blood sugar levels.PathophysiologyThe pathophysiology of diabetic neuropathy involves both metabolic and vascular disturbances triggered by chronic hyperglycemia.Metabolic injury: Elevated glucose levels activate the polyol pathway within nerve cells, leading to the accumulation of sorbitol and fructose. This increases oxidative stress, disrupts normal nerve...