[Engineering 3D cartilage grafts]

The engineering ex vivo of cartilage tissue of predefined size and shape starting from autologous cells has the potential to provide orthopaedic surgeons with functional grafts for the repair of joint injuries. Despite the progress made in the generation and validation of engineered cartilage starting from animal cells, serveral challenges remain to be faced to extend these results to human chondrocytes. This review highlights the need for a highly interdisciplinary approach to effectively introduce engineered cartilage grafts in the routine clinical practice. Issues to be addressed include those related to the biology of chondrocytes, the properties of porous 3D scaffolds, the application of physical stimuli, and the development of economically viable manufacturing systems.