G-protein coupled receptors are ligand binding receptors that indirectly affect changes in the cell. The actual receptor is a single polypeptide that transverses the cell membrane seven times creating intracellular and extracellular loops. The extracellular loops create a ligand specific pocket which binds to neurotransmitters or hormones. The intracellular loops holds onto the G-protein.

Antidepressant drugs are a class of medications primarily used for treating various mood disorders, including major depression, anxiety disorders, and other related conditions. These medicines work by modulating the neurotransmitter balance within the brain, alleviating depressive symptoms. Antidepressants can be broadly categorized into several groups according to their mechanism of action and chemical structure: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), Serotonin-Norepinephrine...

Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs), including Desipramine (Norpramin), Imipramine (Tofranil), Clomipramine (Anafranil), and Amitriptyline (Elavil), inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake and also block other receptors. They are used for depression, pain conditions, and insomnia. Common adverse effects include anticholinergic effects, sedation, orthostatic hypotension, and weight gain. They have a narrow therapeutic window and so require plasma-level monitoring. Abrupt discontinuation can...

Atypical antidepressants, including bupropion (Wellbutrin), mirtazapine (Remeron), nefazodone (Serzone), trazodone (Desyrel), and vilazodone (Viibryd), offer unique mechanisms of action. Bupropion weakly inhibits dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake, aiding depression treatment and smoking cessation, with a low risk of sexual dysfunction. Mirtazapine enhances serotonin and norepinephrine neurotransmission, leading to sedation, increased appetite, and weight gain. As a result, it helps treat...

Depressive disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, diminished pleasure in life, and a significant impact on daily functioning. These conditions are most prevalent in individuals during their 30s and affect women at twice the rate of men. Contrary to popular belief, younger individuals are generally more susceptible to these disorders than older adults. Two key types of depressive disorders include Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and...

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, remains a critical biomedical intervention for severe, treatment-resistant depression. While its origins can be traced back to Hippocrates' observations that malaria-induced convulsions alleviated mental illness, modern ECT has evolved significantly from its earlier, more primitive applications. First introduced in 1938 by Ugo Cerletti and his colleagues, ECT involves inducing controlled seizures using electrical currents. In its early years,...