Related Experiment Video

Updated: Aug 6, 2026

Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction-based Analyses of Murine Intestinal Microbiota After Oral Antibiotic Treatment
08:33

Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction-based Analyses of Murine Intestinal Microbiota After Oral Antibiotic Treatment

Published on: November 17, 2018

Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy

John Penders1, Carel Thijs, Cornelis Vink

  • 1Department of Epidemiology, Nutrition and Toxicology Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, Netherlands. j.penders@epid.unimaas.nl

Pediatrics
|August 3, 2006
PubMed

Insights

Mode of delivery, infant feeding, and antibiotic use significantly shape infant gut microbiota. Vaginal birth, breastfeeding, and no antibiotics promote a beneficial gut microbiome with higher bifidobacteria and lower C. difficile and E. coli.

Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Pediatrics
  • Public Health

Background:

  • The gut microbiome plays a critical role in infant health and development.
  • Early life microbial colonization is influenced by various external factors.
  • Understanding these influences is key to promoting healthy infant gut development.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of diverse external factors on infant gut microbiota composition.
  • To identify key determinants shaping the gut microbial landscape in early infancy.

Main Methods:

  • Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to enumerate specific bacteria (Bifidobacteria, E. coli, C. difficile, Bacteroides, Lactobacilli) in fecal samples from 1032 infants.
  • Data on potential influencing factors were collected via repeated questionnaires.
  • Univariate and multivariate analyses were employed to assess associations between factors and bacterial populations.

Main Results:

  • Cesarean birth was linked to lower Bifidobacteria and Bacteroides, and higher C. difficile colonization.
  • Formula feeding was associated with higher E. coli, C. difficile, Bacteroides, and Lactobacilli compared to breastfeeding.
  • Hospitalization, prematurity, and infant antibiotic use correlated with increased C. difficile and reduced Bifidobacteria/Bacteroides.
  • Presence of older siblings showed a slight increase in Bifidobacteria.

Conclusions:

  • Mode of delivery, infant feeding type, gestational age, hospitalization, and antibiotic exposure are primary determinants of infant gut microbiota.
  • Infants born vaginally at home and exclusively breastfed exhibited the most favorable gut microbiota profiles, characterized by high Bifidobacteria and low C. difficile and E. coli counts.
Abstract

More Related Videos

Probiotic Studies in Neonatal Mice Using Gavage10:36

Probiotic Studies in Neonatal Mice Using Gavage

Published on: January 27, 2019

Recapitulating Suckling-to-Weaning Transition In Vitro using Fetal Intestinal Organoids08:15

Recapitulating Suckling-to-Weaning Transition In Vitro using Fetal Intestinal Organoids

Published on: November 15, 2019

Related Concept Videos

Anatomy of the Intestines01:23

Anatomy of the Intestines

Although digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids may begin in the stomach, it is completed in the intestine. The absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from food and drink also occurs in the intestine. The intestines can be divided into two structurally distinct organs—the small and large intestines.
Small Intestines
The small intestine is an ~7 meter-long tube with an inner diameter of just 2.5 cm. Since most nutrients are absorbed here, the inner lining of the small...
Development of Human Microbiota01:30

Development of Human Microbiota

The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from the skin...
Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

Development of the Oral Microbiota

The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
Introduction to the Human Microbiota01:22

Introduction to the Human Microbiota

Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity, and disease...
Microbiota of the Stomach and Small Intestine01:27

Microbiota of the Stomach and Small Intestine

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is characterized by distinct physicochemical conditions that shape its microbial communities. Among these, the stomach presents a particularly challenging environment for microbial colonization due to its highly acidic pH, ranging from 1 to 3. This extreme acidity effectively limits microbial density. However, certain acid-tolerant microorganisms are capable of surviving in this niche. Notably, Helicobacter pylori can colonize the gastric mucosa,...
Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics01:21

Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics

Antibiotics have revolutionized modern medicine by saving countless lives from bacterial infections. However, their widespread use has inadvertently harmed the delicate balance of the human gut microbiota. The gut microbiota, a complex community of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi, plays a vital role in regulating metabolism, immune responses, and maintaining intestinal health. Antibiotics, especially broad-spectrum types, disrupt this ecosystem by eradicating both harmful and beneficial...