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Related Concept Videos

Organization of the Brain01:31

Organization of the Brain

The brain is an integral component of the nervous system and serves as the center for processing sensory inputs, making decisions, and directing bodily actions. This complex organ is organized into three primary sections: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain, each responsible for a range of vital functions.
Hindbrain
The hindbrain, located at the base of the brain, plays a vital role in regulating automatic processes that sustain life. It includes the medulla oblongata, which is essential for...
Neuron Structure01:30

Neuron Structure

Neurons are the main type of cell in the nervous system that generate and transmit electrochemical signals. They primarily communicate with each other using neurotransmitters at specific junctions called synapses. Neurons come in many shapes that often relate to their function, but most share three main structures: an axon and dendrites that extend out from a cell body.
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The neuronal cell body—the soma— houses the nucleus and organelles vital to cellular...
Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions01:20

Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It consists of four main parts: the cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brainstem.
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Cerebrum: Anatomical Overview I01:26

Cerebrum: Anatomical Overview I

The main and largest component of the human brain is the cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of two main parts: the cerebral cortex, an outer layer with wrinkles or folds known as gyri and shallow grooves called sulci, and a deeper region beneath it. The cerebrum divides into two distinct hemispheres and contains five different lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula. The central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes and two functionally important gyri — the...
The Blood-brain Barrier00:49

The Blood-brain Barrier

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Anatomy of the Brain: Ventricles01:18

Anatomy of the Brain: Ventricles

There are hollow fluid-filled cavities known as ventricles deep inside the human brain. There are two lateral ventricles, one in each cerebral hemisphere, and each has three different projections — the anterior, inferior, and posterior horns visible from the lateral side. A thin membrane called the septum pellucidum separates the two lateral ventricles. The slender third ventricle in the diencephalon is connected to each lateral ventricle via a channel called the interventricular foramen. The...

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Microdissection of Mouse Brain into Functionally and Anatomically Different Regions
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Published on: February 15, 2021

Astrocytic complexity distinguishes the human brain.

Nancy Ann Oberheim1, Xiaohai Wang, Steven Goldman

  • 1Center for Aging and Developmental Biology, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.

Trends in Neurosciences
|August 30, 2006
PubMed
Summary

Human brain astrocytes are more complex than rodent astrocytes, with unique types in primates playing expanded roles in brain circuitry. This complexity reflects evolutionary changes in astrocyte function and neural modulation.

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Last Updated: Jul 20, 2026

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08:48

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Published on: August 16, 2018

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Cortical astrocytes are crucial glial cells in the mammalian brain.
  • Astrocyte complexity varies across species, notably between humans and rodents.
  • Existing knowledge highlights spatial domain organization but lacks detail on human-specific astrocyte types.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the unique morphological and potential functional characteristics of human cortical astrocytes.
  • To compare human astrocytes with those of other mammals, particularly rodents.
  • To propose how astrocyte evolution contributes to human brain complexity.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative morphological analysis of human and rodent cortical astrocytes.
  • Identification and characterization of distinct human astrocyte populations (e.g., interlaminar, polarized).
  • Inference of functional roles based on morphology and cellular relationships.

Main Results:

  • Human protoplasmic astrocytes exhibit significantly larger diameters and more primary processes than rodent counterparts.
  • Unique human astrocyte types, including layer 1 interlaminar and layer 5-6 polarized astrocytes, possess distinct long-range processes.
  • These specialized astrocytes are organized into non-overlapping domains, integrating neuronal and vascular elements.

Conclusions:

  • Human cortical evolution is associated with increased astrocyte diversity and complexity.
  • Specialized human astrocytes likely play expanded roles in synaptic modulation and cortical circuit function.
  • Astrocyte evolution is a key factor in the unique cognitive capabilities of the human brain.