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Optimal Foraging

Optimal Foraging

How animals obtain and eat their food is called foraging behavior. Foraging can include searching for plants and hunting for prey and depends on the species and environment.

Altruism

Altruism

Altruistic behaviors are “unselfish” behaviors—those that help another individual at the expense of the individual carrying out the behavior. Despite the negative consequences for the altruistic animal, these behaviors are thought to have evolved for several reasons.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 19, 2026

A Proboscis Extension Response Protocol for Investigating Behavioral Plasticity in Insects: Application to Basic, Biomedical, and Agricultural Research

A Proboscis Extension Response Protocol for Investigating Behavioral Plasticity in Insects: Application to Basic, Biomedical, and Agricultural Research

Published on: September 8, 2014

Lifetime performance in foraging honeybees: behaviour and physiology.

M-P Schippers¹, R Dukas, R W Smith

¹Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.

The Journal of Experimental Biology

|September 21, 2006

Summary

Honeybee foraging performance improves with experience due to physiological changes in flight muscles. This study found increased protein levels and citrate synthase activity in experienced foragers, suggesting muscle plasticity.

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Last Updated: Jul 19, 2026

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Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Behavioural Pharmacology in Classical Conditioning of the Proboscis Extension Response in Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Published on: January 24, 2011

Area of Science:

Zoology
Insect Physiology
Animal Behavior

Background:

Honeybee (Apis mellifera) foraging efficiency increases with experience.
This improvement may be due to learning or physiological adaptations in flight ability.
Understanding physiological contributions is crucial for explaining enhanced foraging performance.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the role of physiological changes in the flight muscles of honeybees as they gain foraging experience.
To assess how flight muscle biochemistry and enzyme activity change throughout an adult honeybee's foraging lifespan.

Main Methods:

Proteomic analysis (two-dimensional gel electrophoresis) of honeybee thorax muscle.
Measurement of enzyme activities (V(max)) related to aerobic metabolism in flight muscles.
Comparison of muscle components across different life stages: hive bees, young, mature, and old foragers.

Main Results:

Proteomic analysis revealed increased levels of proteins like troponin T 10a, aldolase, and superoxide dismutase in mature foragers compared to hive bees.
Enzyme activities of phosphofructokinase, hexokinase, pyruvate kinase, and cytochrome c oxidase did not significantly change with foraging experience.
Citrate synthase activity, an indicator of aerobic capacity, increased with foraging experience.

Conclusions:

Honeybee flight muscles exhibit plasticity, with both structural (protein levels) and metabolic (citrate synthase activity) components changing with foraging experience.
These physiological adaptations likely contribute to the observed increase in foraging performance as bees gain experience.