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Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

The Parathyroid Glands

The Parathyroid Glands

The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by producing...

Synthesis and Functions of Calcitonin

Synthesis and Functions of Calcitonin

Calcitonin, a vital polypeptide hormone, regulates calcium levels within body fluids. It is released by the parafollicular cells, also known as C cells, situated in the follicular epithelium of the thyroid gland. Calcitonin responds to fluctuations in blood calcium levels and the influence of gastrointestinal hormones like gastrin and cholecystokinin.
The exact mechanisms by which calcitonin operates in calcium homeostasis remain elusive, but its significance is evident in several vital...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 19, 2026

Correlative Light- and Electron Microscopy Using Quantum Dot Nanoparticles

Correlative Light- and Electron Microscopy Using Quantum Dot Nanoparticles

Published on: August 7, 2016

Evidence for Somatostatin receptor 2 in thyroid tissue.

M Druckenthaner¹, C Schwarzer, C Ensinger

¹Clinical Department of Nuclear Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University, Austria.

Regulatory Peptides

|September 26, 2006

Summary

Somatostatin receptor subtype 2 is prevalent in thyroid tumors, making it a promising target for novel therapies. This finding supports the use of somatostatin analogues for treating thyroid cancers that do not respond to radioiodine.

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An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

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Published on: April 17, 2013

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Last Updated: Jul 19, 2026

Correlative Light- and Electron Microscopy Using Quantum Dot Nanoparticles

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Published on: August 7, 2016

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

Published on: April 17, 2013

Area of Science:

Oncology
Endocrinology
Molecular Biology

Background:

Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy is valuable for thyroid tumor imaging.
Somatostatin analogues are emerging as treatments for radioiodine-negative thyroid tumors.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the expression of somatostatin receptor subtypes in thyroid tumors and normal thyroid tissue.
To assess the suitability of somatostatin receptor subtype 2 as a therapeutic target in thyroid cancer.

Main Methods:

Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to analyze mRNA expression of somatostatin receptors (SSTR 1-5) and thyroid markers.
Immunohistochemistry with SSTR2-specific antibodies was performed for correlation.
Surgical samples from 21 patients (16 tumors, 17 controls) were analyzed.

Main Results:

94% of samples expressed somatostatin receptor mRNA, with SSTR2 being predominant.
SSTR2 mRNA expression strongly correlated with SSTR2 immunohistochemistry results (87% positive).
SSTR5 and SSTR3 showed less predominant expression.

Conclusions:

Somatostatin receptor 2 is predominantly expressed in thyroid tissue, validating it as a therapeutic target.
Current octreotide derivatives used in nuclear medicine are suitable for targeting these receptors in thyroid tumors.