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Related Concept Videos

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes02:45

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.  
Normal male Drosophila has a ratio of one X chromosome to two sets of autosomes. In contrast, normal female Drosophila...
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Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as temperature, oxygen availability, presence of mutagens, that can alter an organism’s phenotype.
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Limits to Natural Selection01:38

Limits to Natural Selection

Organisms that are well-adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. However, natural selection does not lead to perfectly adapted organisms. Several factors constrain natural selection.For one, natural selection can only act upon existing genetic variation. Hypothetically, redtusks may enhance elephant survival by deterring ivory-seeking poachers. However, if there are no gene variants—or alleles—for redtusks, natural selection cannot increase the prevalence of...
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In 1928, a German botanist Emil Heitz observed the moss nuclei with a DNA binding dye. He observed that while some chromatin regions decondense and spread out in the interphase nucleus, others do not. He termed them euchromatin and heterochromatin, respectively. He proposed that the heterochromatin regions reflect a functionally inactive state of the genome. It was later confirmed that heterochromatin is transcriptionally repressed, and euchromatin is transcriptionally active chromatin.
Gene Flow02:39

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the transfer of genes among populations, resulting from either the dispersal of gametes or from the migration of individuals.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 18, 2026

Experimental Manipulation of Body Size to Estimate Morphological Scaling Relationships in Drosophila
06:00

Experimental Manipulation of Body Size to Estimate Morphological Scaling Relationships in Drosophila

Published on: October 1, 2011

How flies get their size: genetics meets physiology.

Bruce A Edgar1

  • 1Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Avenue North, B-2152, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA. bedgar@fhcrc.org

Nature Reviews. Genetics
|December 2, 2006
PubMed
Summary

Body size is crucial for fitness and evolution. Insects and mammals share key gene pathways like insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and Target of rapamycin (TOR) signaling for growth control.

Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Genetics
  • Physiology

Background:

  • Body size significantly impacts fitness traits, including mate selection, predation risk, and environmental tolerance.
  • Intense evolutionary selection pressures act on body size.
  • Recent research in insects reveals genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying body size determination.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the gene systems targeted for body size selection in insects.
  • To identify conserved pathways controlling body size between insects and mammals.
  • To understand the sensing mechanisms and organ-intrinsic controls of body size.

Main Methods:

  • Genetic studies in insects.
  • Physiological analyses of growth pathways.

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Last Updated: Jul 18, 2026

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  • Comparative analysis of size control mechanisms across species.

    • Main Results:

    • Insects utilize insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and Target of rapamycin (TOR) kinase signaling pathways to integrate nutrition with cell growth.
    • Steroid and neuropeptide hormones regulate feeding termination based on genetically determined target weights.
    • Identified conserved size-control genes and pathways between insects and mammals.

    Conclusions:

    • Insect and mammal body size regulation share fundamental genetic and signaling pathways.
    • Further research is needed to elucidate how body size is sensed and how organ-level controls integrate with whole-body physiology.