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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

Muscles of the Shoulder

Muscles of the Shoulder

The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
Anterior Thoracic Muscles
The anterior thoracic muscles include the serratus anterior, subclavius, and...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...

Muscles that Move the Arm

Muscles that Move the Arm

Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a short...

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 18, 2026

Clinical Efficacy of Small Needle Knife Therapy on Stage I-II Frozen Shoulder

Clinical Efficacy of Small Needle Knife Therapy on Stage I-II Frozen Shoulder

Published on: November 17, 2023

Upper extremity: emphasis on frozen shoulder.

Monique A Sheridan¹, Jo A Hannafin

¹Women's Sports Medicine Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY 10021, USA.

The Orthopedic Clinics of North America

|December 5, 2006

Summary

Adhesive capsulitis, or frozen shoulder syndrome, involves gradual loss of shoulder motion. While treatments vary, the condition

Area of Science:

Orthopedics and Sports Medicine
Rheumatology

Background:

Adhesive capsulitis, commonly known as frozen shoulder syndrome, is a debilitating condition causing progressive loss of active and passive glenohumeral joint motion.
The precise cause (etiology) of adhesive capsulitis remains unknown, presenting a significant challenge in its management and prevention.
Current treatment modalities encompass a range of interventions, from conservative approaches like physical therapy and corticosteroid injections to surgical options such as manipulation under anesthesia and arthroscopic or open capsular release.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore the characteristics and treatment outcomes of adhesive capsulitis (frozen shoulder).
To investigate the potential role of sex in the etiology, progression, and therapeutic response of frozen shoulder syndrome.

Main Methods:

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Review of existing literature and clinical data on adhesive capsulitis.

Analysis of patient demographics, focusing on the prevalence of the condition in women.

Evaluation of various treatment strategies and their effectiveness in different patient populations.

Main Results:

Adhesive capsulitis is characterized by a gradual reduction in shoulder joint mobility.
A significant majority of individuals affected by frozen shoulder syndrome are women (approximately 70%).
The specific influence of sex on the development and treatment outcomes of adhesive capsulitis requires further elucidation.

Conclusions:

Adhesive capsulitis necessitates a tailored treatment approach based on individual patient presentation and disease stage.
Further research is warranted to understand the etiological factors, including the role of sex, in adhesive capsulitis.
Optimizing patient care involves a comprehensive evaluation to guide the selection of appropriate therapeutic interventions for frozen shoulder.