Amyloidogenesis of type III-dependent harpins from plant pathogenic bacteria

Harpins are heat-stable, glycine-rich type III-secreted proteins produced by plant pathogenic bacteria, which cause a hypersensitive response (HR) when infiltrated into the intercellular space of tobacco leaves; however, the biochemical mechanisms by which harpins cause plant cell death remain unclear. In this study, we determined the biochemical characteristics of HpaG, the first harpin identified from a Xanthomonas species, under plant apoplast-like conditions using electron microscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy. We found that His(6)-HpaG formed biologically active spherical oligomers, protofibrils, and beta-sheet-rich fibrils, whereas the null HR mutant His(6)-HpaG(L50P) did not. Biochemical analysis and HR assay of various forms of HpaG demonstrated that the transition from an alpha-helix to beta-sheet-rich fibrils is important for the biological activity of protein. The fibrillar form of His(6)-HpaG is an amyloid protein based on positive staining with Congo red to produce green birefringence under polarized light, increased protease resistance, and beta-sheet fibril structure. Other harpins, such as HrpN from Erwinia amylovora and HrpZ from Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, also formed curvilinear protofibrils or fibrils under plant apoplast-like conditions, suggesting that amyloidogenesis is a common feature of harpins. Missense and deletion mutagenesis of HpaG indicated that the rate of HpaG fibril formation is modulated by a motif present in the C terminus. The plant cytotoxicity of HpaG is unique among the amyloid-forming proteins that occur in several microorganisms. Structural and morphological analogies between HpaG and disease-related amyloidogenic proteins, such as Abeta protein, suggest possible common biochemical characteristics in the induction of plant and animal cell death.