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Related Concept Videos

Hormonal Regulation01:40

Hormonal Regulation

Hormones regulate a significant portion of digestion through activation of the neuroendocrine system. The neuroendocrine system of digestion contains many different hormones all with multiple functions that are both, directly and indirectly, involved in digestion.
Hormonal Regulation01:33

Hormonal Regulation

The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.
Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle01:30

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
Before puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a low frequency, low amplitude pulsatile manner. This along with the immature hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, results in low estrogen levels and the absence of a fully functional ovarian cycle.  At puberty, GnRH secretion increases in both frequency and...
Menopause01:28

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...
Major Hormones and Their Functions01:27

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Hormones, the biochemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, are pivotal in regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Each hormone's balance is crucial; imbalances can lead to significant physiological disruptions. Major hormones include oxytocin, cortisol, epinephrine, estrogen, testosterone, thyroxine, growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon.
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

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Published on: August 13, 2019

Postmenopausal hormone therapy in clinical perspective.

Howard N Hodis1, Wendy J Mack

  • 1Department of Medicine and the Atherosclerosis Research Unit, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA. athero@usc.edu

Menopause (New York, N.Y.)
|March 14, 2007
PubMed
Summary

Postmenopausal hormone therapy risks, like breast cancer and stroke, are rare and comparable to other treatments. Benefits are similar to heart disease prevention medications when started near menopause.

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Area of Science:

  • Reproductive Medicine
  • Cardiovascular Health
  • Oncology

Background:

  • The risks and benefits of postmenopausal hormone therapy (HT) are established, but their magnitude relative to other treatments is newly understood.
  • Understanding the comparative risks and benefits of HT is crucial for informed clinical decision-making.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a comprehensive review of the risks and benefits of postmenopausal hormone therapy (HT).
  • To compare the magnitude of HT effects to other commonly used therapeutic agents.
  • To assess the safety and efficacy of HT, particularly when initiated early in menopause.

Main Methods:

  • Systematic review and analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on postmenopausal hormone therapy.
  • Comparative analysis of risks (breast cancer, stroke, venous thromboembolism) and benefits (cardiovascular disease prevention) of HT versus other therapies.

Main Results:

  • Risks associated with HT, including breast cancer, stroke, and venous thromboembolism, are rare ( < 1 event per 1,000 women).
  • These risks are comparable to those of other commonly prescribed medications.
  • HT initiated in women under 60 or within 10 years of menopause demonstrates significantly lower risk.
  • Benefits of HT for primary prevention of coronary heart disease are similar to other medications when initiated close to menopause.

Conclusions:

  • Postmenopausal hormone therapy (HT) carries rare risks comparable to other common treatments.
  • Initiating HT early in menopause ( < 60 years or within 10 years) minimizes risks.
  • HT offers benefits for cardiovascular disease prevention comparable to other agents when used in proximity to menopause.