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Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid's elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant physical quantities are the bulk modulus and the density of the material. Indeed, it turns out that the relationship between speed and the bulk modulus and density in fluids is the same as that between the speed and the Young's modulus and density in solids.
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Related Experiment Video

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Studying Cavitation Enhanced Therapy
07:36

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Published on: April 9, 2021

Silent research vessels are not quiet.

Egil Ona1, Olav Rune Godø, Nils Olav Handegard

  • 1Institute of Marine Research, Nordnes, Bergen, Norway. egil.ona@imr.no

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
|May 3, 2007
PubMed
Summary

Herring behavior responses to research vessels were studied. Surprisingly, a quieter vessel elicited a stronger, longer reaction in herring than a conventional one, challenging noise reduction expectations.

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Area of Science:

  • Marine biology
  • Bioacoustics
  • Fisheries science

Background:

  • Vessel noise can influence fish behavior, potentially biasing survey data.
  • Recommendations exist for noise-reduced vessel designs to minimize this bias.
  • The specific acoustic stimuli causing fish avoidance are not fully understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate herring (Clupea harengus) behavioral responses to research vessels with differing radiated noise levels.
  • To evaluate the effectiveness of noise-reduced vessel designs in minimizing fish behavioral reactions.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative behavioral observation of herring.
  • Deployment of two research vessels: one adhering to radiated-noise-standards and one conventional.
  • Monitoring fish reaction patterns in response to vessel presence.

Main Results:

  • Both vessels induced behavioral reactions in herring.
  • The noise-reduced vessel elicited a significantly stronger and more prolonged reaction than the conventional vessel.
  • Contrary to expectations, the 'silent' vessel caused a greater behavioral disturbance.

Conclusions:

  • Standard noise reduction in vessel design may not be sufficient to achieve 'stealth' for surveys.
  • The primary acoustic or non-acoustic stimuli driving herring vessel avoidance require further investigation.
  • Minimizing bias in fisheries surveys necessitates a deeper understanding of fish-vessel interactions beyond just noise levels.