Opioid analgesia in neonates following cardiac surgery

Pain in the newborn is complex, involving a variety of receptors and mechanisms within the developing nervous system. When pain is generated, a series of sequential neurobiologic changes occur within the central nervous system. If pain is prolonged or repetitive, the developing nervous system could be permanently modified, with altered processing at spinal and supraspinal levels. In addition, pain is associated with a number of adverse physiologic responses that include alterations in circulatory (tachycardia, hypertension, vasoconstriction), metabolic (increased catabolism), immunologic (impaired immune response), and hemostatic (platelet activation) systems. This "stress response" associated with cardiac surgery in neonates could be profound and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Neonates undergoing cardiac operations are exposed to extensive tissue damage related to surgery and additional painful stimulation related to endotracheal and thoracostomy tubes that may remain in place for variable periods of time following surgery. In addition, postoperatively neonates endure repeated procedural pain from suctioning of endotracheal tubes, placement of vascular catheters, and manipulation of wounds (eg, sternal closure) and dressings. The treatment and/or prevention of pain are widely considered necessary for humanitarian and physiologic reasons. Improved clinical and developmental outcomes underscore the importance of providing adequate analgesia for newborns who undergo major surgery, mechanical ventilation, and related procedures in the intensive care unit. This article reviews published information regarding opioid administration and associated issues of tolerance and abstinence syndromes (withdrawal) in neonates with an emphasis on those having undergone cardiac surgery.