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Related Concept Videos

Atomic Structure01:33

Atomic Structure

Overview
Nuclear Stability03:18

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10−15 meters, a nucleus is quite small compared to the radius of the entire atom, which is about 10−10 meters. Nuclei are extremely dense compared to bulk matter, averaging 1.8 × 1014 grams per cubic centimeter. If the earth’s density were equal to the average nuclear density, the earth’s radius would be only about 200 meters.
To hold positively charged protons together in the...
Nuclear Fusion02:45

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process called fusion. The principal source of energy in the sun is a net fusion reaction in which four hydrogen nuclei fuse and ultimately produce one helium nucleus and two positrons.
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Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin01:08

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All atomic particles possess an intrinsic angular momentum, or 'spin'. Electrons, protons, and neutrons each have a spin value of ½, although protons and neutrons in nuclei may have higher half-integer spins owing to energetic factors.
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Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Spin State Overview01:03

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NMR-active nuclei have energy levels called 'spin states' that are associated with the orientations of their nuclear magnetic moments. In the absence of a magnetic field, the nuclear magnetic moments are randomly oriented, and the spin states are degenerate. When an external magnetic field is applied, the spin states have only 2 + 1 orientations available to them. A proton with = ½ has two available orientations. Similarly, for a quadrupolar nucleus with a nuclear spin value of one, the...
Atomic Structure01:17

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The Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that everything on Earth is made up of tiny particles called atomos, Greek for "indivisible," from which the modern term "atom" is derived. In the 19th century, John Dalton proposed the atomic theory that is still largely correct today. He put forth five postulates to explain how atoms made up the world around us. (1) All matter is composed of infinitely small particles or atoms. (2) All atoms of a given element are identical to one another and (3) are...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 14, 2026

Synthesis of Core-shell Lanthanide-doped Upconversion Nanocrystals for Cellular Applications
13:51

Synthesis of Core-shell Lanthanide-doped Upconversion Nanocrystals for Cellular Applications

Published on: November 10, 2017

Mars: a new core-crystallization regime.

Andrew J Stewart1, Max W Schmidt, Wim van Westrenen

  • 1Institute for Mineralogy and Petrology, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, CH 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.

Science (New York, N.Y.)
|June 2, 2007
PubMed
Summary

Mars's core is liquid and lacks an iron-rich inner core like Earth's. Planetary cooling may cause crystallization via a "snowing-core" or "sulfide inner-core" model.

Area of Science:

  • Planetary Science
  • Geophysics
  • Solid Earth Geochemistry

Background:

  • Martian core evolution is often analogized to Earth's.
  • Previous models assumed similar core structures and evolutionary paths.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the physical state and crystallization behavior of the Martian core.
  • To determine if Mars develops an iron-rich inner core.

Main Methods:

  • High-pressure and high-temperature experiments on iron-sulfur and iron-nickel-sulfur systems.
  • Simulations at pressures representative of Mars's core.

Main Results:

  • The Martian core is currently entirely liquid.
  • Experimental data suggest Mars will not form an iron-rich inner core.

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On-Chip Crystallization and Large-Scale Serial Diffraction at Room Temperature

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  • Crystallization is predicted to follow either a "snowing-core" or "sulfide inner-core" model.

    • Conclusions:

    • The Martian core's evolution diverges from Earth's.
    • Future core crystallization on Mars will differ significantly from Earth's.
    • New models are needed to explain Martian core dynamics.