Lactic acidosis in HIV patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy

Retroviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that undergoes a special form of replication. Once the retrovirus has entered the host cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase synthesizes double-stranded DNA from the retroviral RNA genome. This DNA copy of the genome is then integrated into the host’s genome inside the nucleus via an enzyme called integrase. Consequently, the retroviral genome is transcribed into RNA whenever the host’s genome is transcribed, allowing the retrovirus to...

DefinitionDiabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute, life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus, characterized by a triad of hyperglycemia (blood glucose >250 mg/dL), ketonemia or ketonuria, and metabolic acidosis (arterial pH <7.30 and serum bicarbonate <18 mEq/L). It results from insulin deficiency combined with elevated levels of counterregulatory hormones—glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone—leading to increased lipolysis, hepatic ketone production, and...

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a metabolic emergency characterized by hyperglycemia, ketonemia, and metabolic acidosis. It results from severe insulin deficiency and an excess of counterregulatory hormones, leading to uncontrolled lipolysis, ketogenesis, and widespread electrolyte and fluid disturbances.Pathophysiology The central event in DKA is a profound loss of insulin action. Without insulin, glucose uptake in insulin-dependent tissues is impaired, while hepatic glucose production...

Cryptococcal meningitis is a life-threatening opportunistic infection predominantly associated with HIV/AIDS, accounting for over 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. However, it also affects individuals with other forms of immunosuppression, including those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, organ transplant recipients, patients with innate immunodeficiencies, and individuals with hematological disorders. The infection is caused mainly by Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii,...

Tuberculosis, often called TB, is a contagious illness primarily caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It mainly affects the lung parenchyma but can also impact other body parts.
Causative Organism
The primary infectious agent causing tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a slow-growing, acid-fast, aerobic rod that exhibits sensitivity to heat and ultraviolet light. Instances of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium contributing to the development of TB infection are rare.
Mode of...

Muscle fatigue refers to the decline in a muscle's ability to maintain the force of contraction after prolonged activity. It primarily stems from changes within muscle fibers. Even before experiencing muscle fatigue, one may feel tired and have the urge to stop the activity. This response, known as central fatigue, occurs due to changes in the central nervous system, namely the brain and spinal cord. While there is no single mechanism that induces fatigue, it may serve as a protective response...