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Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his theory predicted “Electromagnetic waves”. He brought together all the work that had been done by brilliant physicists such as Oersted, Coulomb, Gauss, and Faraday and added his own insights to develop the overarching theory of electromagnetism. Maxwell’s equations, combined with the Lorentz force law, encompass all the laws of electricity and...

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes, this energy is obvious, such as in the summer sun's warmth. At other times, it is subtle, such as the unfelt energy of gamma rays, which can destroy living cells. Electromagnetic waves bring energy into a system through their electric and magnetic fields. These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, thus, do work on them. However, there is energy in an electromagnetic wave,...

Momentum And Radiation Pressure

Momentum And Radiation Pressure

An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum. The force accounts for the wave's radiation pressure exerted on the object. Maxwell's prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The measuring instrument had mirrors suspended from a fiber kept inside a glass container. Nichols...

Electromagnetic Fields

Electromagnetic Fields

Electric fields generated by static charges, often referred to as electrostatic fields, are characteristically different from electric fields created by time-varying magnetic fields. While the former is a conservative field, implying that no net work is done on a test charge if it goes around in a complete loop in the field, the latter is, by definition, not a conservative field; net work is done, and it is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
However, the observation of Gauss's...

Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions

Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions

An electric field suffers a discontinuity at a surface charge. Similarly, a magnetic field is discontinuous at a surface current. The perpendicular component of a magnetic field is continuous across the interface of two magnetic mediums. In contrast, its parallel component, perpendicular to the current, is discontinuous by the amount equal to the product of the vacuum permeability and the surface current. Like the scalar potential in electrostatics, the vector potential is also continuous...

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface equals the energy density of the wave. The wave's momentum also gets transferred to the surface when an electromagnetic wave is entirely absorbed by it. The rate at which momentum is transmitted to an absorbing surface perpendicular to the propagation direction equals the force on the surface.
The average value of the rate of momentum transfer divided by the absorbing area represents the average force per...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2026

Method for Recording Broadband High Resolution Emission Spectra of Laboratory Lightning Arcs

Method for Recording Broadband High Resolution Emission Spectra of Laboratory Lightning Arcs

Published on: August 27, 2019

Satellite observations of lightning.

J A Vorpahl, J G Sparrow, E P Ney

Science (New York, N.Y.)

|August 28, 1970

Summary

Nighttime thunderstorms are ten times more frequent over land than sea. This analysis of optical radiation detected by satellite OSO-B highlights significant geographical disparities in lightning storm activity.

Area of Science:

Atmospheric science
Meteorology
Earth observation

Background:

Understanding the geographical distribution of thunderstorms is crucial for weather forecasting and climate modeling.
Previous studies have indicated variations in lightning activity, but precise land-sea contrasts require detailed analysis.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantitatively assess the difference in nighttime thunderstorm occurrence between land and sea areas.
To leverage satellite-based optical radiation detection for global lightning analysis.

Main Methods:

Analysis of nighttime thunderstorm positions derived from optical radiation data.
Utilizing data from the OSO-B satellite for lightning storm detection.
Geographical mapping and statistical comparison of storm occurrences over land versus oceanic regions.

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Method for Recording Broadband High Resolution Emission Spectra of Laboratory Lightning Arcs

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Main Results:

Nighttime thunderstorms were found to be approximately ten times more prevalent over land areas compared to sea areas.
The satellite OSO-B successfully detected optical radiation indicative of lightning activity over extensive geographical regions.

Conclusions:

Significant geographical asymmetry exists in the occurrence of nighttime thunderstorms, with a strong preference for terrestrial environments.
Satellite-based remote sensing provides a valuable tool for understanding global atmospheric phenomena like lightning distribution.